a history of science-2-第32章

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extremities　of　the　body；　and　then；　〃when　the　proper　medicines　were　given；〃　the　cure　would　be　effected。　The　easy　loop…hole　for　excusing　failure　on　the　ground　of　improper　medicines　is　obvious；　but　Paracelsus　declares　that　this　one　prescription　is　of　more　value　than　〃all　the　humoralists　have　ever　written　or　taught。〃　Since　Paracelsus　condemned　the　study　of　anatomy　as　useless；　he　quite　naturally　regarded　surgery　in　the　same　light。　In　this　he　would　have　done　far　better　to　have　studied　some　of　his　predecessors；　such　as　Galen；　Paul　of　Aegina；　and　Avicenna。　But　instead　of　〃cutting　men　to　pieces；〃　he　taught　that　surgeons　would　gain　more　by　devoting　their　time　to　searching　for　the　universal　panacea　which　would　cure　all　diseases；　surgical　as　well　as　medical。　In　this　we　detect　a　taint　of　the　popular　belief　in　the　philosopher's　stone　and　the　magic　elixir　of　life；　his　belief　in　which　have　been　stoutly　denied　by　some　of　his　followers。　He　did　admit；　however；　that　one　operation　alone　was　perhaps　permissiblelithotomy；　or　the　〃cutting　for　stone。〃　His　influence　upon　medicine　rests　undoubtedly　upon　his　revolutionary　attitude；　rather　than　on　any　great　or　new　discoveries　made　by　him。　It　is　claimed　by　many　that　he　brought　prominently　into　use　opium　and　mercury；　and　if　this　were　indisputably　proven　his　services　to　medicine　could　hardly　be　overestimated。　Unfortunately；　however；　there　are　good　grounds　for　doubting　that　he　was　particularly　influential　in　reintroducing　these　medicines。　His　chief　influence　may　perhaps　be　summed　up　in　a　single　phrasehe　overthrew　old　traditions。　To　Paracelsus's　endeavors；　however；　if　not　to　the　actual　products　of　his　work；　is　due　the　credit　of　setting　in　motion　the　chain　of　thought　that　developed　finally　into　scientific　chemistry。　Nor　can　the　ultimate　aim　of　the　modern　chemist　seek　a　higher　object　than　that　of　this　sixteenth…century　alchemist；　who　taught　that　〃true　alchemy　has　but　one　aim　and　object；　to　extract　the　quintessence　of　things；　and　to　prepare　arcana；　tinctures；　and　elixirs　which　may　restore　to　man　the　health　and　soundness　he　has　lost。〃

THE　GREAT　ANATOMISTS　About　the　beginning　of　the　sixteenth　century；　while　Paracelsus　was　scoffing　at　the　study　of　anatomy　as　useless；　and　using　his　influence　against　it；　there　had　already　come　upon　the　scene　the　first　of　the　great　anatomists　whose　work　was　to　make　the　century　conspicuous　in　that　branch　of　medicine。　The　young　anatomist　Charles　etienne　（1503…1564）　made　one　of　the　first　noteworthy　discoveries；　pointing　out　for　the　first　time　that　the　spinal　cord　contains　a　canal；　continuous　throughout　its　length。　He　also　made　other　minor　discoveries　of　some　importance；　but　his　researches　were　completely　overshadowed　and　obscured　by　the　work　of　a　young　Fleming　who　came　upon　the　scene　a　few　years　later；　and　who　shone　with　such　brilliancy　in　the　medical　world　that　he　obscured　completely　the　work　of　his　contemporary　until　many　years　later。　This　young　physician；　who　was　destined　to　lead　such　an　eventful　career　and　meet　such　an　untimely　end　as　a　martyr　to　science；　was　Andrew　Vesalius　（1514…1564）；　who　is　called　the　〃greatest　of　anatomists。〃　At　the　time　he　came　into　the　field　medicine　was　struggling　against　the　dominating　Galenic　teachings　and　the　theories　of　Paracelsus；　but　perhaps　most　of　all　against　the　superstitions　of　the　time。　In　France　human　dissections　were　attended　with　such　dangers　that　the　young　Vesalius　transferred　his　field　of　labors　to　Italy；　where　such　investigations　were　covertly　permitted；　if　not　openly　countenanced。　From　the　very　start　the　young　Fleming　looked　askance　at　the　accepted　teachings　of　the　day；　and　began　a　series　of　independent　investigations　based　upon　his　own　observations。　The　results　of　these　investigations　he　gave　in　a　treatise　on　the　subject　which　is　regarded　as　the　first　comprehensive　and　systematic　work　on　human　anatomy。　This　remarkable　work　was　published　in　the　author's　twenty…eighth　or　twenty…ninth　year。　Soon　after　this　Vesalius　was　invited　as　imperial　physician　to　the　court　of　Emperor　Charles　V。　He　continued　to　act　in　the　same　capacity　at　the　court　of　Philip　II。；　after　the　abdication　of　his　patron。　But　in　spite　of　this　royal　favor　there　was　at　work　a　factor　more　powerful　than　the　influence　of　the　monarch　himselfan　instrument　that　did　so　much　to　retard　scientific　progress；　and　by　which　so　many　lives　were　brought　to　a　premature　close。　Vesalius　had　received　permission　from　the　kinsmen　of　a　certain　grandee　to　perform　an　autopsy。　While　making　his　observations　the　heart　of　the　outraged　body　was　seen　to　palpitateso　at　least　it　was　reported。　This　was　brought　immediately　to　the　attention　of　the　Inquisition；　and　it　was　only　by　the　intervention　of　the　king　himself　that　the　anatomist　escaped　the　usual　fate　of　those　accused　by　that　tribunal。　As　it　was；　he　was　obliged　to　perform　a　pilgrimage　to　the　Holy　Land。　While　returning　from　this　he　was　shipwrecked；　and　perished　from　hunger　and　exposure　on　the　island　of　Zante。　At　the　very　time　when　the　anatomical　writings　of　Vesalius　were　startling　the　medical　world；　there　was　living　and　working　contemporaneously　another　great　anatomist；　Eustachius　（died　1574）；　whose　records　of　his　anatomical　investigations　were　ready　for　publication　only　nine　years　after　the　publication　of　the　work　of　Vesalius。　Owing　to　the　unfortunate　circumstances　of　the　anatomist；　however；　they　were　never　published　during　his　lifetimenot；　in　fact；　until　1714。　When　at　last　they　were　given　to　the　world　as　Anatomical　Engravings；　they　showed　conclusively　that　Eustachius　was　equal；　if　not　superior　to　Vesalius　in　his　knowledge　of　anatomy。　It　has　been　said　of　this　remarkable　collection　of　engravings　that　if　they　had　been　published　when　they　were　made　in　the　sixteenth　century；　anatomy　would　have　been　advanced　by　at　least　two　centuries。　But　be　this　as　it　may；　they　certainly　show　that　their　author　was　a　most　careful　dissector　and　observer。　Eustachius　described　accurately　for　the　first　time　certain　structures　of　the　middle　ear；　and　rediscovered　the　tube　leading　from　the　ear　to　the　throat　that　bears　his　name。　He　also　made　careful　studies　of　the　teeth　and　the　phenomena　of　first　and　second　dentition。　He　was　not　baffled　by　the　minuteness　of　structures　and　where　he　was　unable　to　study　them　with　the　naked　eye　he　used　glasses　for　the　purpose；　and　resorted　to　macerations　and　injections　for　the　study　of　certain　complicated　structures。　But　while　the　fruit　of　his　pen　and　pencil　were　lost　for　more　than　a　century　after　his　death；　the　effects　of　his　teachings　were　not；　and　his　two　pupils；　Fallopius　and　Columbus；　are　almost　as　well　known　to…day　as　their　illustrious　teacher。　Columbus　（1490…1559）　did　much　in　correcting　the　mistakes　made　in　the　anatomy　of　the　bones　as　described　by　Vesalius。　He　also　added　much　to　the　science　by　giving　correct　accounts　of　the　shape　and　cavities　of　the　heart；　and　made　many　other　discoveries　of　minor　importance。　Fallopius　（1523…1562）　added　considerably　to　the　general　knowledge　of　anatomy；　made　several　discoveries　in　the　anatomy　of　the　ear；　and　also　several　organs　in　the　abdominal　cavity。　At　this　time　a　most　vitally　important　controversy　was　in　progress　as　to　whether　or　not　the　veins　of　the　bodies　were　supplied　with　valves；　many　anatomists　being　unable　to　find　them。　etienne　had　first　described　these　structures；　and　Vesalius　had　confirmed　his　observations。　It　would　seem　as　if　there　could　be　no　difficulty　in　settling　the　question　as　to　the　fact　of　such　valves　being　present　in　the　vessels；　for　the　demonstration　is　so　simple　that　it　is　now　made　daily　by　medical　students　in　all　physiological　laboratories　and　dissecting…rooms。　But　many　of　the　great　anatomists　of　the　sixteenth　century　were　unable　to　make　this　demonstration；　even　when　it　had　been　brought　to　their　attention　by　such　an　authority　as　Vesalius。　Fallopius；　writing　to　Vesalius　on　the　subject　in　1562；　declared　that　he　was　unable　to　find　such　valves。　Others；　however；　such　as　Eustachius　and　Fabricius　（1537…1619）；　were　more　successful；　and　found　and　described　these　structures。　But　the　purpose　served　by　these　valves　was　entirely　misinterpreted。　That　they　act　in　preventing　the　backward　flow　of　the　blood　in　the　veins　on　its　way　to　the　heart；　just　as　the　valves　of　the　heart　itself　prevent　regurgitation；　has　been　known　sinc