a history of science-2-第31章

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hrown　aside；　and　he　devoted　his　time　to　personal　observationthe　only　true　means　of　gaining　useful　knowledge；　as　he　preached　and　practised　ever　after。　Here　he　became　familiar　with　the　art　of　mining；　learned　the　physical　properties　of　minerals；　ores；　and　metals；　and　acquired　some　knowledge　of　mineral　waters。　More　important　still；　he　came　in　contact　with　such　diseases；　wounds；　and　injuries　as　miners　are　subject　to；　and　he　tried　his　hand　at　the　practical　treatment　of　these　conditions；　untrammelled　by　the　traditions　of　a　profession　in　which　his　training　had　been　so　scant。　Having　acquired　some　empirical　skill　in　treating　diseases；　Paracelsus　set　out　wandering　from　place　to　place　all　over　Europe；　gathering　practical　information　as　he　went；　and　learning　more　and　more　of　the　medicinal　virtues　of　plants　and　minerals。　His　wanderings　covered　a　period　of　about　ten　years；　at　the　end　of　which　time　he　returned　to　Basel；　where　he　was　soon　invited　to　give　a　course　of　lectures　in　the　university。　These　lectures　were　revolutionary　in　two　respectsthey　were　given　in　German　instead　of　time…honored　Latin；　and　they　were　based　upon　personal　experience　rather　than　upon　the　works　of　such　writers　as　Galen　and　Avicenna。　Indeed；　the　iconoclastic　teacher　spoke　with　open　disparagement　of　these　revered　masters；　and　openly　upbraided　his　fellow…practitioners　for　following　their　tenets。　Naturally　such　teaching　raised　a　storm　of　opposition　among　the　older　physicians；　but　for　a　time　the　unparalleled　success　of　Paracelsus　in　curing　diseases　more　than　offset　his　unpopularity。　Gradually；　however；　his　bitter　tongue　and　his　coarse　personality　rendered　him　so　unpopular；　even　among　his　patients；　that；　finally；　his　liberty　and　life　being　jeopardized；　he　was　obliged　to　flee　from　Basel；　and　became　a　wanderer。　He　lived　for　brief　periods　in　Colmar；　Nuremberg；　Appenzell；　Zurich；　Pfeffers；　Augsburg；　and　several　other　cities；　until　finally　at　Salzburg　his　eventful　life　came　to　a　close　in　1541。　His　enemies　said　that　he　had　died　in　a　tavern　from　the　effects　of　a　protracted　debauch；　his　supporters　maintained　that　he　had　been　murdered　at　the　instigation　of　rival　physicians　and　apothecaries。　But　the　effects　of　his　teachings　had　taken　firm　root；　and　continued　to　spread　after　his　death。　He　had　shown　the　fallibility　of　many　of　the　teachings　of　the　hitherto　standard　methods　of　treating　diseases；　and　had　demonstrated　the　advantages　of　independent　reasoning　based　on　observation。　In　his　Magicum　he　gives　his　reasons　for　breaking　with　tradition。　〃I　did；〃　he　says；　〃embrace　at　the　beginning　these　doctrines；　as　my　adversaries　（followers　of　Galen）　have　done；　but　since　I　saw　that　from　their　procedures　nothing　resulted　but　death；　murder；　stranglings；　anchylosed　limbs；　paralysis；　and　so　forth；　that　they　held　most　diseases　incurable。　。　。　。　therefore　have　I　quitted　this　wretched　art；　and　sought　for　truth　in　any　other　direction。　I　asked　myself　if　there　were　no　such　thing　as　a　teacher　in　medicine；　where　could　I　learn　this　art　best？　Nowhere　better　than　the　open　book　of　nature；　written　with　God's　own　finger。〃　We　shall　see；　however；　that　this　〃book　of　nature〃　taught　Paracelsus　some　very　strange　lessons。　Modesty　was　not　one　of　these。　〃Now　at　this　time；〃　he　declares；　〃I；　Theophrastus　Paracelsus；　Bombast；　Monarch　of　the　Arcana；　was　endowed　by　God　with　special　gifts　for　this　end；　that　every　searcher　after　this　supreme　philosopher's　work　may　be　forced　to　imitate　and　to　follow　me；　be　he　Italian；　Pole；　Gaul；　German；　or　whatsoever　or　whosoever　he　be。　Come　hither　after　me；　all　ye　philosophers；　astronomers；　and　spagirists。　。　。　。　I　will　show　and　open　to　you　。。。　this　corporeal　regeneration。〃＇1＇　Paracelsus　based　his　medical　teachings　on　four　〃pillars〃　philosophy；　astronomy；　alchemy；　and　virtue　of　the　physiciana　strange…enough　equipment　surely；　and　yet；　properly　interpreted；　not　quite　so　anomalous　as　it　seems　at　first　blush。　Philosophy　was　the　〃gate　of　medicine；〃　whereby　the　physician　entered　rightly　upon　the　true　course　of　learning；　astronomy；　the　study　of　the　stars；　was　all…important　because　〃they　（the　stars）　caused　disease　by　their　exhalations；　as；　for　instance；　the　sun　by　excessive　heat〃；　alchemy；　as　he　interpreted　it；　meant　the　improvement　of　natural　substances　for　man's　benefit；　while　virtue　in　the　physician　was　necessary　since　〃only　the　virtuous　are　permitted　to　penetrate　into　the　innermost　nature　of　man　and　the　universe。〃　All　his　writings　aim　to　promote　progress　in　medicine；　and　to　hold　before　the　physician　a　grand　ideal　of　his　profession。　In　this　his　views　are　wide　and　far…reaching；　based　on　the　relationship　which　man　bears　to　nature　as　a　whole；　but　in　his　sweeping　condemnations　he　not　only　rejected　Galenic　therapeutics　and　Galenic　anatomy；　but　condemned　dissections　of　any　kind。　He　laid　the　cause　of　all　diseases　at　the　door　of　the　three　mystic　elementssalt；　sulphur；　and　mercury。　In　health　he　supposed　these　to　be　mingled　in　the　body　so　as　to　be　indistinguishable；　a　slight　separation　of　them　produced　disease；　and　death　he　supposed　to　be　the　result　of　their　complete　separation。　The　spiritual　agencies　of　diseases；　he　said；　had　nothing　to　do　with　either　angels　or　devils；　but　were　the　spirits　of　human　beings。　He　believed　that　all　food　contained　poisons；　and　that　the　function　of　digestion　was　to　separate　the　poisonous　from　the　nutritious。　In　the　stomach　was　an　archaeus；　or　alchemist；　whose　duty　was　to　make　this　separation。　In　digestive　disorders　the　archaeus　failed　to　do　this；　and　the　poisons　thus　gaining　access　to　the　system　were　〃coagulated〃　and　deposited　in　the　joints　and　various　other　parts　of　the　body。　Thus　the　deposits　in　the　kidneys　and　tartar　on　the　teeth　were　formed；　and　the　stony　deposits　of　gout　were　particularly　familiar　examples　of　this。　All　this　is　visionary　enough；　yet　it　shows　at　least　a　groping　after　rational　explanations　of　vital　phenomena。　Like　most　others　of　his　time；　Paracelsus　believed　firmly　in　the　doctrine　of　〃signatures〃a　belief　that　every　organ　and　part　of　the　body　had　a　corresponding　form　in　nature；　whose　function　was　to　heal　diseases　of　the　organ　it　resembled。　The　vagaries　of　this　peculiar　doctrine　are　too　numerous　and　complicated　for　lengthy　discussion；　and　varied　greatly　from　generation　to　generation。　In　general；　however；　the　theory　may　be　summed　up　in　the　words　of　Paracelsus：　〃As　a　woman　is　known　by　her　shape；　so　are　the　medicines。〃　Hence　the　physicians　were　constantly　searching　for　some　object　of　corresponding　shape　to　an　organ　of　the　body。　The　most　natural　application　of　this　doctrine　would　be　the　use　of　the　organs　of　the　lower　animals　for　the　treatment　of　the　corresponding　diseased　organs　in　man。　Thus　diseases　of　the　heart　were　to　be　treated　with　the　hearts　of　animals；　liver　disorders　with　livers；　and　so　on。　But　this　apparently　simple　form　of　treatment　had　endless　modifications　and　restrictions；　for　not　all　animals　were　useful。　For　example；　it　was　useless　to　give　the　stomach　of　an　ox　in　gastric　diseases　when　the　indication　in　such　cases　was　really　for　the　stomach　of　a　rat。　Nor　were　the　organs　of　animals　the　only　〃signatures〃　in　nature。　Plants　also　played　a　very　important　role；　and　the　herb…doctors　devoted　endless　labor　to　searching　for　such　plants。　Thus　the　blood…root；　with　its　red　juice；　was　supposed　to　be　useful　in　blood　diseases；　in　stopping　hemorrhage；　or　in　subduing　the　redness　of　an　inflammation。　Paracelsus's　system　of　signatures；　however；　was　so　complicated　by　his　theories　of　astronomy　and　alchemy　that　it　is　practically　beyond　comprehension。　It　is　possible　that　he　himself　may　have　understood　it；　but　it　is　improbable　that　any　one　else　didas　shown　by　the　endless　discussions　that　have　taken　place　about　it。　But　with　all　the　vagaries　of　his　theories　he　was　still　rational　in　his　applications；　and　he　attacked　to　good　purpose　the　complicated　〃shot…gun〃　prescriptions　of　his　contemporaries；　advocating　more　simple　methods　of　treatment。　The　ever…fascinating　subject　of　electricity；　or；　more　specifically；　〃magnetism；〃　found　great　favor　with　him；　and　with　properly　adjusted　magnets　he　claimed　to　be　able　to　cure　many　diseases。　In　epilepsy　and　lockjaw；　for　example；　one　had　but　to　fasten　magnets　to　the　four　extremities　of　the　body；　and　then；　〃when　the　proper　medicines　were　given；〃　the　cure　would　be　effecte