the evolution of modern medicine-第6章

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e　which　are　not　local。〃＇12＇

＇12＇　The　History　of　Herodotus；　Blakesley's　ed。；　Bk。　II；　84。


A　remarkable　statement　is　made　by　Pliny；　in　the　discussion　upon　the　use　of　radishes；　which　are　said　to　cure　a　〃Phthisicke；〃　or　ulcer　of　the　lungs〃proofe　whereof　was　found　and　seen　in　AEgypt　by　occasion　that　the　KK。　there；　caused　dead　bodies　to　be　cut　up；　and　anatomies　to　be　made；　for　to　search　out　the　maladies　whereof　men　died。〃＇13＇

＇13　Pliny；　Holland's　translation；　Bk。　XIX；　Chap。　V；　Sect。　26。


The　study　of　the　anatomy　of　mummies　has　thrown　a　very　interesting　light　upon　the　diseases　of　the　ancient　Egyptians；　one　of　the　most　prevalent　of　which　appears　to　have　been　osteo…arthritis。　This　has　been　studied　by　Elliot　Smith；　Wood　Jones；　Ruffer　and　Rietti。　　The　majority　of　the　lesions　appear　to　have　been　the　common　osteo…arthritis；　which　involved　not　only　the　men；　but　many　of　the　pet　animals　kept　in　the　temples。　　In　a　much　higher　proportion　apparently　than　in　modern　days；　the　spinal　column　was　involved。　It　is　interesting　to　note　that　the　〃determinative〃　of　old　age　in　hieroglyphic　writing　is　the　picture　of　a　man　afflicted　with　arthritis　deformans。　Evidences　of　tuberculosis；　rickets　and　syphilis；　according　to　these　authors；　have　not　been　found。

A　study　of　the　internal　organs　has　been　made　by　Ruffer；　who　has　shown　that　arterio…sclerosis　with　calcification　was　a　common　disease　8500　years　ago；　and　he　holds　that　it　could　not　have　been　associated　with　hard　work　or　alcohol；　for　the　ancient　Egyptians　did　not　drink　spirits；　and　they　had　practically　the　same　hours　of　work　as　modern　Egyptians；　with　every　seventh　day　free。


ASSYRIAN　AND　BABYLONIAN　MEDICINE

OF　equally　great　importance　in　the　evolution　of　medicine　was　the　practically　contemporary　civilization　in　Mesopotamia。　　Science　here　reached　a　much　higher　stage　then　in　the　valley　of　the　Nile。　An　elaborate　scheme　of　the　universe　was　devised；　a　system　growing　out　of　the　Divine　Will；　and　a　recognition　for　the　first　time　of　a　law　guiding　and　controlling　heaven　and　earth　alike。　　Here；　too；　we　find　medicine　ancillary　to　religion。　Disease　was　due　to　evil　spirits　or　demons。　　〃These　'demons'invisible　to　the　naked　eye　were　the　precursors　of　the　modern　'germs'　and　'microbes；'　while　the　incantations　recited　by　the　priests　are　the　early　equivalents　of　the　physician's　prescriptions。　　There　were　different　incantations　for　different　diseases；　and　they　were　as　mysterious　to　the　masses　as　are　the　mystic　formulas　of　the　modern　physician　to　the　bewildered；　yet　trusting；　patient。　　Indeed；　their　mysterious　character　added　to　the　power　supposed　to　reside　in　the　incantations　for　driving　the　demons　away。　Medicinal　remedies　accompanied　the　recital　of　the　incantations；　but　despite　the　considerable　progress　made　by　such　nations　of　hoary　antiquity　as　the　Egyptians　and　Babylonians　in　the　diagnosis　and　treatment　of　common　diseases；　leading　in　time　to　the　development　of　an　extensive　pharmacology；　so　long　as　the　cure　of　disease　rested　with　the　priests；　the　recital　of　sacred　formulas；　together　with　rites　that　may　be　conveniently　grouped　under　the　head　of　sympathetic　magic；　was　regarded　as　equally　essential　with　the　taking　of　the　prescribed　remedies。〃＇14＇

＇14＇　Morris　Jastrow：　　The　Liver　in　Antiquity　and　the　Beginnings　of　Anatomy。　　Transactions　College　of　Physicians；　Philadelphia；　1907；　3。　s。；　XXIX；　117…138。


Three　points　of　interest　may　be　referred　to　in　connection　with　Babylonian　medicine。　　Our　first　recorded　observations　on　anatomy　are　in　connection　with　the　art　of　divination　the　study　of　the　future　by　the　interpretation　of　certain　signs。　The　student　recognized　two　divisions　of　divination　the　involuntary；　dealing　with　the　interpretation　of　signs　forced　upon　our　attention；　such　as　the　phenomena　of　the　heavens；　dreams；　etc。；　and　voluntary　divination；　the　seeking　of　signs；　more　particularly　through　the　inspection　of　sacrificial　animals。　This　method　reached　an　extraordinary　development　among　the　Babylonians；　and　the　cult　spread　to　the　Etruscans；　Hebrews；　and　later　to　the　Greeks　and　Romans。

Of　all　the　organs　inspected　in　a　sacrificial　animal　the　liver；　from　its　size；　position　and　richness　in　blood；　impressed　the　early　observers　as　the　most　important　of　the　body。　　Probably　on　account　of　the　richness　in　blood　it　came　to　be　regarded　as　the　seat　of　lifeindeed；　the　seat　of　the　soul。　From　this　important　position　the　liver　was　not　dislodged　for　many　centuries；　and　in　the　Galenic　physiology　it　shared　with　the　heart　and　the　brain　in　the　triple　control　of　the　natural；　animal　and　vital　spirits。　Many　expressions　in　literature　indicate　how　persistent　was　this　belief。　Among　the　Babylonians；　the　word　〃liver〃　was　used　in　hymns　and　other　compositions　precisely　as　we　use　the　word　〃heart；〃　and　Jastrow　gives　a　number　of　illustrations　from　Hebrew；　Greek　and　Latin　sources　illustrating　this　usage。

The　belief　arose　that　through　the　inspection　of　this　important　organ　in　the　sacrificial　animal　the　course　of　future　events　could　be　predicted。　〃The　life　or　soul；　as　the　seat　of　life；　in　the　sacrificial　animal　is；　therefore；　the　divine　element　in　the　animal；　and　the　god　in　accepting　the　animal；　which　is　involved　in　the　act　of　bringing　it　as　an　offering　to　a　god；　identifies　himself　with　the　animalbecomes；　as　it　were；　one　with　it。　　The　life　in　the　animal　is　a　reflection　of　his　own　life；　and　since　the　fate　of　men　rests　with　the　gods；　if　one　can　succeed　in　entering　into　the　mind　of　a　god；　and　thus　ascertain　what　he　purposes　to　do；　the　key　for　the　solution　of　the　problem　as　to　what　the　future　has　in　store　will　have　been　found。　　The　liver　being　the　centre　of　vitalitythe　seat　of　the　mind；　therefore；　as　well　as　of　the　emotionsit　becomes　in　the　case　of　the　sacrificial　animal；　either　directly　identical　with　the　mind　of　the　god　who　accepts　the　animal；　or；　at　all　events；　a　mirror　in　which　the　god's　mind　is　reflected；　or；　to　use　another　figure；　a　watch　regulated　to　be　in　sympathetic　and　perfect　accord　with　a　second　watch。　If；　therefore；　one　can　read　the　liver　of　the　sacrificial　animal；　one　enters；　as　it　were；　into　the　workshop　of　the　divine　will。〃＇15＇

＇15＇　Morris　Jastrow：　loc。　cit。；　p。　122。


Hepatoscopy　thus　became；　among　the　Babylonians；　of　extraordinary　complexity；　and　the　organ　of　the　sheep　was　studied　and　figured　as　early　as　3000　B。C。　In　the　divination　rites；　the　lobes；　the　gall…bladder；　the　appendages　of　the　upper　lobe　and　the　markings　were　all　inspected　with　unusual　care。　The　earliest　known　anatomical　model；　which　is　here　shown；　is　the　clay　model　of　a　sheep's　liver　with　the　divination　text　dating　from　about　2000　B。C。；　from　which　Jastrow　has　worked　out　the　modern　anatomical　equivalents　of　the　Babylonian　terms。　To　reach　a　decision　on　any　point；　the　phenomena　of　the　inspection　of　the　liver　were　carefully　recorded；　and　the　interpretations　rested　on　a　more　or　less　natural　and　original　association　of　ideas。　　Thus；　if　the　gall…bladder　were　swollen　on　the　right　side；　it　pointed　to　an　increase　in　the　strength　of　the　King's　army；　and　was　favorable；　if　on　the　left　side；　it　indicated　rather　success　of　the　enemy；　and　was　unfavorable。　If　the　bile　duct　was　long；　it　pointed　to　a　long　life。　Gallstones　are　not　infrequently　mentioned　in　the　divination　texts　and　might　be　favorable；　or　unfavorable。　　Various　interpretations　were　gathered　by　the　scribes　in　the　reference　note…books　which　serve　as　guides　for　the　interpretation　of　the　omens　and　for　text…books　of　instructions　in　the　temple　schools　（Jastrow）。

The　art　of　divination　spread　widely　among　the　neighboring　nations。　There　are　many　references　in　the　Bible　to　the　practice。　The　elders　of　Moab　and　Midian　came　to　Balaam　〃with　the　rewards　of　divination　in　their　hand〃　（Numbers　xxii；　7）。　Joseph's　cup　of　divination　was　found　in　Benjamin's　sack　（Genesis　xliv；　5；　12）；　and　in　Ezekiel　（xxi；　21）　the　King　of　Babylon　stood　at　the　parting　of　the　way　and　looked　in　the　liver。　　Hepatoscopy　was　also　practiced　by　the　Etruscans；　and　from　them　it　passed　to　the　Greeks　and　the　Romans；　among　whom　it　degenerated　into　a　more　or　less　meaningless　form。　But　Jastrow　states　that　in　Babylonia　and　Assyria；　where　for　several　thousand　years　the　liver　was　consistently　employed　as　the　sole　organ　of　divination；　there　are　no　traces　of　the　rite　having　fa