the evolution of modern medicine-第38章
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e。〃 Locke； too； became the spokesman of the new questioning spirit； and before the close of the seventeenth century； experimental research became all the mode。 Richard Lower； Hooke and Hales were probably more influenced by Descartes than by Harvey； and they made notable contributions to experimental physiology in England。 Borelli； author of the famous work on 〃The Motion of Animals〃 （Rome； 1680…1681）； brought to the study of the action of muscles a profound knowledge of physics and mathematics and really founded the mechanical； or iatromechanical school。 The literature and the language of medicine became that of physics and mechanics： wheels and pulleys； wedges； levers； screws； cords； canals。 cisterns； sieves and strainers； with angles； cylinders； celerity； percussion and resistance； were among the words that now came into use in medical literature。 Withington quotes a good example in a description by Pitcairne； the Scot who was professor of medicine at Leyden at the end of the seventeenth century。 〃Life is the circulation of the blood。 Health is its free and painless circulation。 Disease is an abnormal motion of the blood； either general or local。 Like the English school generally； he is far more exclusively mechanical than are the Italians； and will hear nothing of ferments or acids； even in digestion。 This； he declares； is a purely mechanical process due to heat and pressure； the wonderful effects of which may be seen in Papin's recently invented 'digester。' That the stomach is fully able to comminute the food may be proved by the following calculation。 Borelli estimates the power of the flexors of the thumb at 3720 pounds； their average weight being 122 grains。 Now； the average weight of the stomach is eight ounces； therefore it can develop a force of 117；088 pounds； and this may be further assisted by the diaphragm and abdominal muscles the power of which； estimated in the same way； equals 461；219 pounds！ Well may Pitcairne add that this force is not inferior to that of any millstone。〃＇36＇ Paracelsus gave an extraordinary stimulus to the study of chemistry and more than anyone else he put the old alchemy on modern lines。 I have already quoted his sane remark that its chief service is in seeking remedies。 But there is another side to this question。 If； as seems fairly certain； the Basil Valentine whose writings were supposed to have inspired Paracelsus was a hoax and his works were made up in great part from the writings of Paracelsus； then to our medical Luther； and not to the mythical Benedictine monk； must be attributed a great revival in the search for the Philosopher's Stone； for the Elixir of Life； for a universal medicine； for the perpetuum mobile and for an aurum potabile。＇37＇ I reproduce； almost at random； a page from the fifth and last part of the last will and testament of Basil Valentine （London； 1657）； from which you may judge the chemical spirit of the time。
＇36＇ Withington： Medical History from the Earliest Times； London； 1891； Scientific Press； p。 317。
＇37＇ See Professor Stillman on the Basil Valentine hoax； Popular Science Monthly； New York； 1919； LXXXI； 591…600。
Out of the mystic doctrines of Paracelsus arose the famous 〃Brothers of the Rosy Cross。〃 〃The brotherhood was possessed of the deepest knowledge and science； the transmutation of metals； the perpetuum mobile and the universal medicine were among their secrets； they were free from sickness and suffering during their lifetime； though subject finally to death。〃＇38＇
＇38＇ Ferguson： Bibliotheca Chemica； Vol。 II； p。 290。 For an account of Fludd and the English Rosicrucians see Craven's Life of Fludd； Kirkwall； 1902。
A school of a more rational kind followed directly upon the work of Paracelsus； in which the first man of any importance was Van Helmont。 The Paracelsian Archeus was the presiding spirit in living creatures； and worked through special local ferments； by which the functions of the organs are controlled。 Disease of any part represents a strike on the part of the local Archeus； who refuses to work。 Though full of fanciful ideas； Van Helmont had the experimental spirit and was the first chemist to discover the diversity of gases。 Like his teacher； he was in revolt against the faculty； and he has bitter things to say of physicians。 He got into trouble with the Church about the magnetic cure of wounds； as no fewer than twenty…seven propositions incompatible with the Catholic faith were found in his pamphlet （Ferguson）。 The Philosophus per ignem； Toparcha in Merode； Royenborch； as he is styled in certain of his writings； is not an easy man to tackle。 I show the title…page of the 〃Ortus Medicinae；〃 the collection of his works by his son。 As with the pages of Paracelsus； there are many gems to be dug out。 The counterblast against bleeding was a useful protest； and to deny in toto its utility in fever required courage a quality never lacking in the Father of Modern Chemistry； as he has been called。
A man of a very different type； a learned academic； a professor of European renown； was Daniel Sennert of Wittenberg； the first to introduce the systematic teaching of chemistry into the curriculum； and who tried to harmonize the Galenists and Paracelsians。 Franciscus Sylvius； a disciple of Van Helmont； established the first chemical laboratory in Europe at Leyden； and to him is due the introduction of modern clinical teaching。 In 1664 he writes： 〃I have led my pupils by the hand to medical practice； using a method unknown at Leyden； or perhaps elsewhere； i。e。； taking them daily to visit the sick at the public hospital。 There I have put the symptoms of disease before their eyes； have let them hear the complaints of the patients； and have asked them their opinions as to the causes and rational treatment of each case； and the reasons for those opinions。 Then I have given my own judgment on every point。 Together with me they have seen the happy results of treatment when God has granted to our cares a restoration of health； or they have assisted in examining the body when the patient has paid the inevitable tribute to death。〃＇39＇
＇39＇ Withington： Medical History from the Earliest Times； London； 1894； pp。 312…313。
Glauber； Willis； Mayow； Lemery； Agricola and Stahl led up to Robert Boyle； with whom modern chemistry may be said to begin。 Even as late as 1716； Lady Mary Wortley Montagu in Vienna found that all had transferred their superstitions from religion to chemistry； 〃scarcely a man of opulence or fashion that has not an alchemist in his service。〃 To one scientific man of the period I must refer as the author of the first scientific book published in England。 Dryden sings：
Gilbert shall live till load…stones cease to draw Or British fleets the boundless ocean awe。
And the verse is true； for by the publication in 1600 of the 〃De Magnete〃 the science of electricity was founded。 William Gilbert was a fine type of the sixteenth…century physician； a Colchester man； educated at St。 John's College； Cambridge。 Silvanus Thompson says： 〃He is beyond question rightfully regarded as the Father of Electric Science。 He founded the entire subject of Terrestrial Magnetism。 He also made notable contributions to Astronomy； being the earliest English expounder of Copernicus。 In an age given over to metaphysical obscurities and dogmatic sophistry； he cultivated the method of experiment and of reasoning from observation； with an insight and success which entitles him to be regarded as the father of the inductive method。 That method； so often accredited to Bacon； Gilbert was practicing years before him。〃＇40＇
＇40＇ Silvanus P。 Thompson： Gilbert of Colchester； Father of Electrical Science； London； Chiswick Press； 1903； p。 3。
CHAPTER V
THE RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN MEDICINE
THE middle of the seventeenth century saw the profession thus far on its waycertain objective features of disease were known； the art of careful observation had been cultivated； many empirical remedies had been discovered； the coarser structure of man's body had been well worked out； and a good beginning had been made in the knowledge of how the machinery workednothing more。 What disease really was； where it was； how it was caused； had
