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utilized it;〃 says history。

  But what is chance? What is genius?

  The words chance and genius do not denote any really existing

thing and therefore cannot be defined。 Those words only denote a

certain stage of understanding of phenomena。 I do not know why a

certain event occurs; I think that I cannot know it; so I do not try

to know it and I talk about chance。 I see a force producing effects

beyond the scope of ordinary human agencies; I do not understand why

this occurs and I talk of genius。

  To a herd of rams; the ram the herdsman drives each evening into a

special enclosure to feed and that becomes twice as fat as the

others must seem to be a genius。 And it must appear an astonishing

conjunction of genius with a whole series of extraordinary chances

that this ram; who instead of getting into the general fold every

evening goes into a special enclosure where there are oats… that

this very ram; swelling with fat; is killed for meat。

  But the rams need only cease to suppose that all that happens to

them happens solely for the attainment of their sheepish aims; they

need only admit that what happens to them may also have purposes

beyond their ken; and they will at once perceive a unity and coherence

in what happened to the ram that was fattened。 Even if they do not

know for what purpose they are fattened; they will at least know

that all that happened to the ram did not happen accidentally; and

will no longer need the conceptions of chance or genius。

  Only by renouncing our claim to discern a purpose immediately

intelligible to us; and admitting the ultimate purpose to be beyond

our ken; may we discern the sequence of experiences in the lives of

historic characters and perceive the cause of the effect they

produce (incommensurable with ordinary human capabilities); and then

the words chance and genius become superfluous。

  We need only confess that we do not know the purpose of the European

convulsions and that we know only the facts… that is; the murders;

first in France; then in Italy; in Africa; in Prussia; in Austria;

in Spain; and in Russia… and that the movements from the west to the

east and from the east to the west form the essence and purpose of

these events; and not only shall we have no need to see exceptional

ability and genius in Napoleon and Alexander; but we shall be unable

to consider them to be anything but like other men; and we shall not

be obliged to have recourse to chance for an explanation of those

small events which made these people what they were; but it will be

clear that all those small events were inevitable。

  By discarding a claim to knowledge of the ultimate purpose; we shall

clearly perceive that just as one cannot imagine a blossom or seed for

any single plant better suited to it than those it produces; so it

is impossible to imagine any two people more completely adapted down

to the smallest detail for the purpose they had to fulfill; than

Napoleon and Alexander with all their antecedents。

EP1|CH3

  CHAPTER III



  The fundamental and essential significance of the European events of

the beginning of the nineteenth century lies in the movement of the

mass of the European peoples from west to east and afterwards from

east to west。 The commencement of that movement was the movement

from west to east。 For the peoples of the west to be able to make

their warlike movement to Moscow it was necessary: (1) that they

should form themselves into a military group of a size able to

endure a collision with the warlike military group of the east; (2)

that they should abandon all established traditions and customs; and

(3) that during their military movement they should have at their head

a man who could justify to himself and to them the deceptions;

robberies; and murders which would have to be committed during that

movement。

  And beginning with the French Revolution the old inadequately

large group was destroyed; as well as the old habits and traditions;

and step by step a group was formed of larger dimensions with new

customs and traditions; and a man was produced who would stand at

the head of the coming movement and bear the responsibility for all

that had to be done。

  A man without convictions; without habits; without traditions;

without a name; and not even a Frenchman; emerges… by what seem the

strangest chances… from among all the seething French parties; and

without joining any one of them is borne forward to a prominent

position。

  The ignorance of his colleagues; the weakness and insignificance

of his opponents; the frankness of his falsehoods; and the dazzling

and self…confident limitations of this man raise him to the head of

the army。 The brilliant qualities of the soldiers of the army sent

to Italy; his opponents' reluctance to fight; and his own childish

audacity and self…confidence secure him military fame。 Innumerable

so called chances accompany him everywhere。 The disfavor into which he

falls with the rulers of France turns to his advantage。 His attempts

to avoid his predestined path are unsuccessful: he is not received

into the Russian service; and the appointment he seeks in Turkey comes

to nothing。 During the war in Italy he is several times on the verge

of destruction and each time is saved in an unexpected manner。 Owing

to various diplomatic considerations the Russian armies… just those

which might have destroyed his prestige… do not appear upon the

scene till he is no longer there。

  On his return from Italy he finds the government in Paris in a

process of dissolution in which all those who are in it are inevitably

wiped out and destroyed。 And by chance an escape from this dangerous

position presents itself in the form of an aimless and senseless

expedition to Africa。 Again so…called chance accompanies him。

Impregnable Malta surrenders without a shot; his most reckless schemes

are crowned with success。 The enemy's fleet; which subsequently did

not let a single boat pass; allows his entire army to elude it。 In

Africa a whole series of outrages are committed against the almost

unarmed inhabitants。 And the men who commit these crimes; especially

their leader; assure themselves that this is admirable; this is glory…

it resembles Caesar and Alexander the Great and is therefore good。

  This ideal of glory and grandeur… which consists not merely in

considering nothing wrong that one does but in priding oneself on

every crime one commits; ascribing to it an incomprehensible

supernatural significance… that ideal; destined to guide this man

and his associates; had scope for its development in Africa。

Whatever he does succeeds。 The plague does not touch him。 The

cruelty of murdering prisoners is not imputed to him as a fault。 His

childishly rash; uncalled…for; and ignoble departure from Africa;

leaving his comrades in distress; is set down to his credit; and again

the enemy's fleet twice lets him slip past。 When; intoxicated by the

crimes he has committed so successfully; he reaches Paris; the

dissolution of the republican government; which a year earlier might

have ruined him; has reached its extreme limit; and his presence there

now as a newcomer free from party entanglements can only serve to

exalt him… and though he himself has no plan; he is quite ready for

his new role。

  He had no plan; he was afraid of everything; but the parties

snatched at him and demanded his participation。

  He alone… with his ideal of glory and grandeur developed in Italy

and Egypt; his insane self…adulation; his boldness in crime and

frankness in lying… he alone could justify what had to be done。

  He is needed for the place that awaits him; and so almost apart from

his will and despite his indecision; his lack of a plan; and all his

mistakes; he is drawn into a conspiracy that aims at seizing power and

the conspiracy is crowned with success。

  He is pushed into a meeting of the legislature。 In alarm he wishes

to flee; considering himself 

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