the nature of rent-第7章

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　　　　I　hope　to　be　excused　for　dwelling　a　little；　and　presenting　to

the　reader　in　various　forms　the　doctrine；　that　corn　in　reference

to　the　quantity　actually　produced　is　sold　at　its　necessary　price

like　manufactures；　because　I　consider　it　as　a　truth　of　the

highest　importance；　which　has　been　entirely　overlooked　by　the

Economists；　by　Adam　Smith；　and　all　those　writers　who　have

represented　raw　produce　as　selling　always　at　a　monopoly　price。

　　　　Adam　Smith　has　very　clearly　explained　in　what　manner　the

progress　of　wealth　and　improvement　tends　to　raise　the　price　of

cattle；　poultry；　the　materials　of　clothing　and　lodging；　the　most

useful　minerals；　etc。；　etc。　compared　with　corn；　but　he　has　not

entered　into　the　explanation　of　the　natural　causes　which　tend　to

determine　the　price　of　corn。　He　has　left　the　reader；　indeed；　to

conclude；　that　he　considers　the　price　of　corn　as　determined　only

by　the　state　of　the　mines　which　at　the　time　supply　the

circulating　medium　of　the　commercial　world。　But　this　is　a　cause

obviously　inadequate　to　account　for　the　actual　differences　in　the

price　of　grain；　observable　in　countries　at　no　great　distance　from

each　other；　and　at　nearly　the　same　distance　from　the　mines。

　　　　I　entirely　agree　with　him；　that　it　is　of　great　use　to　inquire

into　the　causes　of　high　price；　as；　from　the　result　of　such

inquiry；　it　may　turn　out；　that　the　very　circumstance　of　which　we

complain；　may　be　the　necessary　consequence　and　the　most　certain

sign　of　increasing　wealth　and　prosperity。　But；　of　all　inquiries

of　this　kind；　none　surely　can　be　so　important；　or　so　generally

interesting；　as　an　inquiry　into　the　causes　which　affect　the　price

of　corn；　and　which　occasion　the　differences　in　this　price；　so

observable　in　different　countries。

　　　　I　have　no　hesitation　in　stating　that；　independently　of

irregularities　in　the　currency　of　a　country；（13*）　and　other

temporary　and　accidental　circumstances；　the　cause　of　the　high

comparative　money　price　of　corn　is　its　high　comparative　real

price；　or　the　greater　quantity　of　capital　and　labour　which　must

be　employed　to　produce　it：　and　that　the　reason　why　the　real　price

of　corn　is　higher　and　continually　rising　in　countries　which　are

already　rich；　and　still　advancing　in　prosperity　and　population；

is　to　be　found　in　the　necessity　of　resorting　constantly　to　poorer

land　…　to　machines　which　require　a　greater　expenditure　to　work

them　…　and　which　consequently　occasion　each　fresh　addition　to　the

raw　produce　of　the　country　to　be　purchased　at　a　greater　cost　…　in

short；　it　is　to　be　found　in　the　important　truth　that　corn；　in　a

progressive　country；　is　sold　at　the　price　necessary　to　yield　the

actual　supply；　and　that；　as　this　supply　becomes　more　and　more

difficult；　the　price　rises　in　proportion。（14*）

　　　　The　price　of　corn；　as　determined　by　these　causes；　will　of

course　be　greatly　modified　by　other　circumstances；　by　direct　and

indirect　taxation；　by　improvements　in　the　modes　of　cultivation；

by　the　saving　of　labour　on　the　land；　and　particularly　by　the

importations　of　foreign　corn。　The　latter　cause；　indeed；　may　do

away；　in　a　considerable　degree；　the　usual　effects　of　great　wealth

on　the　price　of　corn；　and　this　wealth　will　then　show　itself　in　a

different　form。

　　　　Let　us　suppose　seven　or　eight　large　countries　not　very

distant　from　each　other；　and　not　very　differently　situated　with

regard　to　the　mines。　Let　us　suppose　further；　that　neither　their

soils　nor　their　skill　in　agriculture　are　essentially　unlike；　that

their　currencies　are　in　a　natural　state；　their　taxes　nothing；　and

that　every　trade　is　free；　except　the　trade　in　corn。　Let　us　now

suppose　one　of　them　very　greatly　to　increase　in　capital　and

manufacturing　skill　above　the　rest；　and　to　become　in　consequence

much　more　rich　and　populous。　I　should　say；　that　this　great

comparative　increase　of　riches　could　not　possibly　take　place；

without　a　great　comparative　advance　in　the　price　of　raw　produce；

and　that　such　advance　of　price　would；　under　the　circumstances

supposed；　be　the　natural　sign　and　absolutely　necessary

consequence；　of　the　increased　wealth　and　population　of　the

country　in　question。

　　　　Let　us　now　suppose　the　same　countries　to　have　the　most

perfect　freedom　of　intercourse　in　corn；　and　the　expenses　of

freight；　etc。　to　be　quite　inconsiderable。　And　let　us　still

suppose　one　of　them　to　increase　very　greatly　above　the　rest；　in

manufacturing　capital　and　skill；　in　wealth　and　population。　I

should　then　say；　that　as　the　importation　of　corn　would　prevent

any　great　difference　in　the　price　of　raw　produce；　it　would

prevent　any　great　difference　in　the　quantity　of　capital　laid　out

upon　the　land；　and　the　quantity　of　corn　obtained　from　it；　that；

consequently；　the　great　increase　of　wealth　could　not　take　place

without　a　great　dependence　on　the　other　nations　for　corn；　and

that　this　dependence；　under　the　circumstances　supposed；　would　be

the　natural　sign；　and　absolutely　necessary　consequence　of　the

increased　wealth　and　population　of　the　country　in　question。

　　　　These　I　consider　as　the　two　alternatives　necessarily

belonging　to　a　great　comparative　increase　of　wealth；　and　the

supposition　here　made　will；　with　proper　restrictions；　apply　to

the　state　of　Europe。

　　　　In　Europe；　the　expenses　attending　the　carriage　of　corn　are

often　considerable。　They　form　a　natural　barrier　to　importation；

and　even　the　country　which　habitually　depends　upon　foreign　corn；

must　have　the　price　of　its　raw　produce　considerably　higher　than

the　general　level。　Practically；　also；　the　prices　of　raw　produce；

in　the　different　countries　of　Europe；　will　be　variously　modified

by　very　different　soils；　very　different　degrees　of　taxation；　and

very　different　degrees　of　improvement　in　the　science　of

agriculture。　Heavy　taxation；　and　a　poor　soil；　may　occasion　a　high

comparative　price　of　raw　produce；　or　a　considerable　dependence　on

other　countries；　without　great　wealth　and　population；　while　great

improvements　in　agriculture　and　a　good　soil　may　keep　the　price　of

produce　low；　and　the　country　independent　of　foreign　corn；　in

spite　of　considerable　wealth。　But　the　principles　laid　down　are

the　general　principles　on　the　subject；　and　in　applying　them　to

any　particular　case；　the　particular　circumstances　of　such　case

must　always　be　taken　into　consideration。

　　　　With　regard　to　improvements　in　agriculture；　which　in　similar

soils　is　the　great　cause　which　retards　the　advance　of　price

compared　with　the　advance　of　produce；　although　they　are　sometimes

very　powerful；　they　are　rarely　found　sufficient　to　balance　the

necessity　of　applying　to　poorer　land；　or　inferior　machines。　In

this　respect；　raw　produce　is　essentially　different　from

manufactures。

　　　　The　real　price　of　manufactures；　the　quantity　of　labour　and

capital　necessary　to　produce　a　given　quantity　of　them；　is　almost

constantly　diminishing；　while　the　quantity　of　labour　and　capital；

necessary　to　procure　the　last　addition　that　has　been　made　to　the

raw　produce　of　a　rich　and　advancing　country；　is　almost　constantly

increasing。　We　see　in　consequence；　that　in　spite　of　continued

improvements　in　agriculture；　the　money　price　of　corn　is　ceteris

paribus　the　highest　in　the　richest　countries；　while　in　spite　of

this　high　price　of　corn；　and　consequent　high　price　of　labour；　the

money　price　of　manufactures　still　continues　lower　than　in　poorer

countries。

　　　　I　cannot　then　agree　with　Adam　Smith；　in　thinking　that　the　low

value　of　gold　and　silver　is　no　proof　of　the　wealth　and

flourishing　state　of　the　country；　where　it　takes　place。　Nothing

of　course　can　be　inferred　from　it；　taken　absolutely；　except　the

abundance　of　the　mines；　but　taken　relatively；　or　in　comparison

with　the　state　of　other　countries；　much　may　be　inferred　from　it。

If　we　are　to　measure　the　value　of　the　precious　metals　in

different　countries；　and　at　different　periods　in　the　same

country；　by　the　price　of　corn　and　labour；　which　appears　to　me　to

be　the　nearest　practical　approximation　that　can　be　adopted　（and

in　fact　corn　i