the nature of rent-第4章

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any　considerable　fullness　of　population；　which　of　course　cannot

take　place　without　a　great　fall　both　in　the　profits　of　stock　and

the　wages　of　labour；　the　separation　of　rents；　as　a　kind　of

fixture　upon　lands　of　a　certain　quality；　is　a　law　as　invariable

as　the　action　of　the　principle　of　gravity。　And　that　rents　are

neither　a　mere　nominal　value；　nor　a　value　unnecessarily　and

injuriously　transferred　from　one　set　of　people　to　another；　but　a

most　real　and　essential　part　of　the　whole　value　of　the　national

property；　and　placed　by　the　laws　of　nature　where　they　are；　on　the

land；　by　whomsoever　possessed；　whether　the　landlord；　the　crown；

or　the　actual　cultivator。

　　　　Rent　then　has　been　traced　to　the　same　common　nature　with　that

general　surplus　from　the　land；　which　is　the　result　of　certain

qualities　of　the　soil　and　its　products；　and　it　has　been　found　to

commence　its　separation　from　profits；　as　soon　as　profits　and

wages　fall；　owing　to　the　comparative　scarcity　of　fertile　land　in

the　natural　progress　of　a　country　towards　wealth　and　population。

　　　　Having　examined　the　nature　and　origin　of　rent；　it　remains　for

us　to　consider　the　laws　by　which　it　is　governed；　and　by　which　its

increase　or　decrease　is　regulated。

　　　　When　capital　has　accumulated；　and　labour　fallen　on　the　most

eligible　lands　of　a　country；　other　lands　less　favourably

circumstanced　with　respect　to　fertility　or　situation；　may　be

occupied　with　advantage。　The　expenses　of　cultivation；　including

profits；　having　fallen；　poorer　land；　or　land　more　distant　from

markets；　though　yielding　at　first　no　rent；　may　fully　repay　these

expenses；　and　fully　answer　to　the　cultivator。　And　again；　when

either　the　profits　of　stock　or　the　wages　of　labour；　or　both；　have

still　further　fallen；　land　still　poorer；　or　still　less　favourably

situated；　may　be　taken　into　cultivation。　And；　at　every　step；　it

is　clear；　that　if　the　price　of　produce　does　not　fall；　the　rents

of　land　will　rise。　And　the　price　of　produce　will　not　fall；　as

long　as　the　industry　and　ingenuity　of　the　labouring　classes；

assisted　by　the　capitals　of　those　not　employed　upon　the　land；　can

find　something　to　give　in　exchange　to　the　cultivators　and

landlords；　which　will　stimulate　them　to　continue　undiminished

their　agricultural　exertions；　and　maintain　their　increasing

excess　of　produce。

　　　　In　tracing　more　particularly　the　laws　which　govern　the　rise

and　fall　of　rents；　the　main　causes　which　diminish　the　expenses　of

cultivation；　or　reduce　the　cost　of　the　instruments　of　production；

compared　with　the　price　of　produce；　require　to　be　more

specifically　enumerated。　The　principal　of　these　seem　to　be　four：

first；　such　an　accumulation　of　capital　as　will　lower　the　profits

of　stock；　secondly；　such　an　increase　of　population　as　will　lower

the　wages　of　labour；　thirdly；　such　agricultural　improvements；　or

such　increase　of　exertions；　as　will　diminish　the　number　of

labourers　necessary　to　produce　a　given　effect；　and　fourthly；　such

an　increase　in　the　price　of　agricultural　produce；　from　increased

demand；　as　without　nominally　lowering　the　expense　of　production；

will　increase　the　difference　between　this　expense　and　the　price

of　produce。

　　　　The　operation　of　the　three　first　causes　in　lowering　the

expenses　of　cultivation；　compared　with　the　price　of　produce；　are

quite　obvious；　the　fourth　requires　a　few　further　observations。

　　　　If　a　great　and　continued　demand　should　arise　among

surrounding　nations　for　the　raw　produce　of　a　particular　country；

the　price　of　this　produce　would　of　course　rise　considerably；　and

the　expenses　of　cultivation；　rising　only　slowly　and　gradually　to

the　same　proportion；　the　price　of　produce　might　for　a　long　time

keep　so　much　ahead；　as　to　give　a　prodigious　stimulus　to

improvement；　and　encourage　the　employment　of　much　capital　in

bringing　fresh　land　under　cultivation；　and　rendering　the　old　much

more　productive。

　　　　Nor　would　the　effect　be　essentially　different　in　a　country

which　continued　to　feed　its　own　people；　if　instead　of　a　demand

for　its　raw　produce；　there　was　the　same　increasing　demand　for　its

manufactures。　These　manufactures；　if　from　such　a　demand　the　value

of　their　amount　in　foreign　countries　was　greatly　to　increase；

would　bring　back　a　great　increase　of　value　in　return；　which

increase　of　value　could　not　fail　to　increase　the　value　of　the　raw

produce。　The　demand　for　agricultural　as　well　as　manufactured

produce　would　be　augmented；　and　a　considerable　stimulus；　though

not　perhaps　to　the　same　extent　as　in　the　last　case；　would　be

given　to　every　kind　of　improvement　on　the　land。

　　　　A　similar　effect　would　be　produced　by　the　introduction　of　new

machinery；　and　a　more　judicious　division　of　labour　in

manufactures。　It　almost　always　happens　in　this　case；　not　only

that　the　quantity　of　manufactures　is　very　greatly　increased；　but

that　the　value　of　the　whole　mass　is　augmented；　from　the　great

extension　of　the　demand　for　them；　occasioned　by　their　cheapness。

We　see；　in　consequence；　that　in　all　rich　manufacturing　and

commercial　countries；　the　value　of　manufactured　and　commercial

products　bears　a　very　high　proportion　to　the　raw　products；（10*）

whereas；　in　comparatively　poor　countries；　without　much　internal

trade　and　foreign　commerce；　the　value　of　their　raw　produce

constitutes　almost　the　whole　of　their　wealth。　If　we　suppose　the

wages　of　labour　so　to　rise　with　the　rise　of　produce；　as　to　give

the　labourer　the　same　command　of　the　means　of　subsistence　as

before；　yet　if　he　is　able　to　purchase　a　greater　quantity　of　other

necessaries　and　conveniencies；　both　foreign　and　domestic；　with

the　price　of　a　given　quantity　of　corn；　he　may　be　equally　well

fed；　clothed；　and　lodged；　and　population　may　be　equally

encouraged；　although　the　wages　of　labour　may　not　rise　so　high　in

proportion　as　the　price　of　produce。

　　　　And　even　when　the　price　of　labour　does　really　rise　in

proportion　to　the　price　of　produce；　which　is　a　very　rare　case；

and　can　only　happen　when　the　demand　for　labour　precedes；　or　is　at

least　quite　contemporary　with　the　demand　for　produce；　it　is　so

impossible　that　all　the　other　outgoings　in　which　capital　is

expended；　should　rise　precisely　in　the　same　proportion；　and　at

the　same　time；　such　as　compositions　for　tithes；　parish　rates；

taxes；　manure；　and　the　fixed　capital　accumulated　under　the　former

low　prices；　that　a　period　of　some　continuance　can　scarcely　fail

to　occur；　when　the　difference　between　the　price　of　produce　and

the　cost　of　production　is　increased。

　　　　In　some　of　these　cases；　the　increase　in　the　price　of

agricultural　produce；　compared　with　the　cost　of　the　instruments

of　production；　appears　from　what　has　been　said　to　be　only

temporary；　and　in　these　instances　it　will　often　give　a

considerable　stimulus　to　cultivation；　by　an　increase　of

agricultural　profits；　without　showing　itself　much　in　the　shape　of

rent。　It　hardly　ever　fails；　however；　to　increase　rent　ultimately。

The　increased　capital；　which　is　employed　in　consequence　of　the

opportunity　of　making　great　temporary　profits；　can　seldom　if　ever

be　entirely　removed　from　the　land；　at　the　expiration　of　the

current　leases；　and；　on　the　renewal　of　these　leases；　the　landlord

feels　the　benefit　of　it　in　the　increase　of　his　rents。

　　　　Whenever　then；　by　the　operation　of　the　four　causes　above

mentioned；　the　difference　between　the　price　of　produce　and　the

cost　of　the　instruments　of　production　increases；　the　rents　of

land　will　rise。

　　　　It　is；　however；　not　necessary　that　all　these　four　causes

should　operate　at　the　same　time；　it　is　only　necessary　that　the

difference　here　mentioned　should　increase。　If；　for　instance；　the

price　of　produce　were　to　rise；　while　the　wages　of　labour；　and　the

price　of　the　other　branches　of　capital　did　not　rise　in

proportion；　and　at　the　same　time　improved　modes　of　agriculture

were　coming　into　general　use；　it　is　evident　that　this　difference

might　be　increased；　although　the　profits　of　agricultural　stock

were　not　only　undiminished；　but　were　to　rise　decidedly　higher。