the nature of rent-第3章

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of　a　certain　flavour；　is　sold　of　course　at　a　price　very　far

exceeding　the　cost　of　production。　And　this　is　owing　to　the

greatness　of　the　competition　for　such　wine；　compared　with　the

scantiness　of　its　supply；　which　confines　the　use　of　it　to　so

small　a　number　of　persons；　that　they　are　able；　and　rather　than　go

without　it；　willing；　to　give　an　excessively　high　price。　But　if

the　fertility　of　these　lands　were　increased；　so　as　very

considerably　to　increase　the　produce；　this　produce　might　so　fall

in　value　as　to　diminish　most　essentially　the　excess　of　its　price

above　the　cost　of　production。　While；　on　the　other　hand；　if　the

vineyards　were　to　become　less　productive；　this　excess　might

increase　to　almost　any　extent。

　　　　The　obvious　cause　of　these　effects　is；　that　in　all

monopolies；　properly　so　called；　whether　natural　or　artificial；

the　demand　is　exterior　to；　and　independent　of；　the　production

itself。　The　number　of　persons　who　might　have　a　taste　for　scarce

wines；　and　would　be　desirous　of　entering　into　a　competition　for

the　purchase　of　them；　might　increase　almost　indefinitely；　while

the　produce　itself　was　decreasing；　and　its　price；　therefore；

would　have　no　other　limit　than　the　numbers；　powers；　and　caprices；

of　the　competitors　for　it。

　　　　In　the　production　of　the　necessaries　of　life；　on　the

contrary；　the　demand　is　dependent　upon　the　produce　itself；　and

the　effects　are；　in　consequence；　widely　different。　In　this　case；

it　is　physically　impossible　that　the　number　of　demanders　should

increase；　while　the　quantity　of　produce　diminishes；　as　the

demanders　only　exist　by　means　of　this　produce。　The　fertility　of

soil；　and　consequent　abundance　of　produce　from　a　certain　quantity

of　land；　which；　in　the　former　case；　diminished　the　excess　of

price　above　the　cost　of　production；　is；　in　the　present　case；　the

specific　cause　of　such　excess；　and　the　diminished　fertility；

which　in　the　former　case　might　increase　the　price　to　almost　any

excess　above　the　cost　of　production；　may　be　safely　asserted　to　be

the　sole　cause　which　could　permanently　maintain　the　necessaries

of　life　at　a　price　not　exceeding　the　cost　of　production。

　　　　Is　it；　then；　possible　to　consider　the　price　of　the

necessaries　of　life　as　regulated　upon　the　principle　of　a　common

monopoly？　Is　it　possible；　with　M。　de　Sismondi；　to　regard　rent　as

the　sole　produce　of　labour；　which　has　a　value　purely　nominal；　and

the　mere　result　of　that　augmentation　of　price　which　a　seller

obtains　in　consequence　of　a　peculiar　privilege；　or；　with　Mr

Buchanan；　to　consider　it　as　no　addition　to　the　national　wealth；

but　merely　as　a　transfer　of　value；　advantageous　only　to　the

landlords；　and　proportionately　injurious　to　the　consumers？

　　　　Is　it　not；　on　the　contrary；　a　clear　indication　of　a　most

inestimable　quality　in　the　soil；　which　God　has　bestowed　on　man　…

the　quality　of　being　able　to　maintain　more　persons　than　are

necessary　to　work　it？　Is　it　not　a　part；　and　we　shall　see　further

on　that　it　is　an　absolutely　necessary　part；　of　that　surplus

produce　from　the　land；（9*）　which　has　been　justly　stated　to　be　the

source　of　all　power　and　enjoyment；　and　without　which；　in　fact；

there　would　be　no　cities；　no　military　or　naval　force；　no　arts；　no

learning；　none　of　the　finer　manufactures；　none　of　the

conveniences　and　luxuries　of　foreign　countries；　and　none　of　that

cultivated　and　polished　society；　which　not　only　elevates　and

dignifies　individuals；　but　which　extends　its　beneficial　influence

through　the　whole　mass　of　the　people？

　　　　In　the　early　periods　of　society；　or　more　remarkably　perhaps；

when　the　knowledge　and　capital　of　an　old　society　are　employed

upon　fresh　and　fertile　land；　this　surplus　produce；　this　bountiful

gift　of　providence；　shows　itself　chiefly　in　extraordinary　high

profits；　and　extraordinary　high　wages；　and　appears　but　little　in

the　shape　of　rent。　While　fertile　land　is　in　abundance；　and　may　be

had　by　whoever　asks　for　it；　nobody　of　course　will　pay　a　rent　to　a

landlord。　But　it　is　not　consistent　with　the　laws　of　nature；　and

the　limits　and　quality　of　the　earth；　that　this　state　of　things

should　continue。　Diversities　of　soil　and　situation　must

necessarily　exist　in　all　countries。　All　land　cannot　be　the　most

fertile：　all　situations　cannot　be　the　nearest　to　navigable　rivers

and　markets。　But　the　accumulation　of　capital　beyond　the　means　of

employing　it　on　land　of　the　greatest　natural　fertility；　and　the

greatest　advantage　of　situation；　must　necessarily　lower　profits；

while　the　tendency　of　population　to　increase　beyond　the　means　of

subsistence　must；　after　a　certain　time；　lower　the　wages　of

labour。

　　　　The　expense　of　production　will　thus　be　diminished；　but　the

value　of　the　produce；　that　is；　the　quantity　of　labour；　and　of　the

other　products　of　labour　besides　corn；　which　it　can　command；

instead　of　diminishing；　will　be　increased。　There　will　be　an

increasing　number　of　people　demanding　subsistence；　and　ready　to

offer　their　services　in　any　way　in　which　they　can　be　useful。　The

exchangeable　value　of　food　will；　therefore；　be　in　excess　above

the　cost　of　production；　including　in　this　cost　the　full　profits

of　the　stock　employed　upon　the　land；　according　to　the　actual　rate

of　profits；　at　the　time　being。　And　this　excess　is　rent。

　　　　Nor　is　it　possible　that　these　rents　should　permanently　remain

as　parts　of　the　profits　of　stock；　or　of　the　wages　of　labour。　If

such　an　accumulation　were　to　take　place；　as　decidedly　to　lower

the　general　profits　of　stock；　and；　consequently；　the　expenses　of

cultivation；　so　as　to　make　it　answer　to　cultivate　poorer　land；

the　cultivators　of　the　richer　land；　if　they　paid　no　rent；　would

cease　to　be　mere　farmers；　or　persons　living　upon　the　profits　of

agricultural　stock。　They　would　unite　the　characters　of　farmers

and　landlords　…　a　union　by　no　means　uncommon；　but　which　does　not

alter；　in　any　degree；　the　nature　of　rent；　or　its　essential

separation　from　profits。　If　the　general　profits　of　stock　were　20

per　cent　and　particular　portions　of　land　would　yield　30　per　cent

on　the　capital　employed；　10　per　cent　of　the　30　would　obviously　be

rent；　by　whomsoever　received。

　　　　It　happens；　indeed；　sometimes；　that　from　bad　government；

extravagant　habits；　and　a　faulty　constitution　of　society；　the

accumulation　of　capital　is　stopped；　while　fertile　land　is　in

considerable　plenty；　in　which　case　profits　may　continue

permanently　very　high；　but　even　in　this　case　wages　must

necessarily　fall；　which　by　reducing　the　expenses　of　cultivation

must　occasion　rents。　There　is　nothing　so　absolutely　unavoidable

in　the　progress　of　society　as　the　fall　of　wages；　that　is　such　a

fall　as；　combined　with　the　habits　of　the　labouring　classes；　will

regulate　the　progress　of　population　according　to　the　means　of

subsistence。　And　when；　from　the　want　of　an　increase　of　capital；

the　increase　of　produce　is　checked；　and　the　means　of　subsistence

come　to　a　stand；　the　wages　of　labour　must　necessarily　fall　so

low；　as　only　just　to　maintain　the　existing　population；　and　to

prevent　any　increase。

　　　　We　observe　in　consequence；　that　in　all　those　countries；　such

as　Poland；　where；　from　the　want　of　accumulation；　the　profits　of

stock　remain　very　high；　and　the　progress　of　cultivation　either

proceeds　very　slowly；　or　is　entirely　stopped；　the　wages　of　labour

are　extremely　low。　And　this　cheapness　of　labour；　by　diminishing

the　expenses　of　cultivation；　as　far　as　labour　is　concerned；

counteracts　the　effects　of　the　high　profits　of　stock；　and

generally　leaves　a　larger　rent　to　the　landlord　than　in　those

countries；　such　as　America；　where；　by　a　rapid　accumulation　of

stock；　which　can　still　find　advantageous　employment；　and　a　great

demand　for　labour；　which　is　accompanied　by　an　adequate　increase

of　produce　and　population；　profits　cannot　be　low；　and　labour　for

some　considerable　time　remains　very　high。

　　　　It　may　be　laid　down；　therefore；　as　an　incontrovertible　truth；

that　as　a　nation　reaches　any　considerable　degree　of　wealth；　and

any　considerable　fullness　of　population；　whic