the+critique+of+practical+reason-第14章

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It　can　abstract　altogether　from　the　application　of　this　notion　to
objects　with　a　view　to　theoretical　knowledge　（since　this　concept　is
always　found　a　priori　in　the　understanding　even　independently　of　any
intuition）。　Reason；　then；　employs　it　only　for　a　practical　purpose；　and
hence　we　can　transfer　the　determining　principle　of　the　will　into　the
intelligible　order　of　things；　admitting；　at　the　same　time；　that　we
cannot　understand　how　the　notion　of　cause　can　determine　the
knowledge　of　these　things。　But　reason　must　cognise　causality　with
respect　to　the　actions　of　the　will　in　the　sensible　world　in　a　definite
manner；　otherwise；　practical　reason　could　not　really　produce　any
action。　But　as　to　the　notion　which　it　forms　of　its　own　causality　as
noumenon；　it　need　not　determine　it　theoretically　with　a　view　to　the
cognition　of　its　supersensible　existence；　so　as　to　give　it
significance　in　this　way。　For　it　acquires　significance　apart　from
this；　though　only　for　practical　use；　namely；　through　the　moral　law。
Theoretically　viewed；　it　remains　always　a　pure　a　priori　concept　of　the
understanding；　which　can　be　applied　to　objects　whether　they　have
been　given　sensibly　or　not；　although　in　the　latter　case　it　has　no
definite　theoretical　significance　or　application；　but　is　only　a
formal；　though　essential；　conception　of　the　understanding　relating
to　an　object　in　general。　The　significance　which　reason　gives　it
through　the　moral　law　is　merely　practical；　inasmuch　as　the　idea　of　the
idea　of　the　law　of　causality　（of　the　will）　has　self　causality；　or　is
its　determining　principle。

　　II。　Of　the　Right　that　Pure　Reason　in　its　Practical　use　has　to　an
Extension　which　is　not　possible　to　it　in　its　Speculative　Use。

　　We　have　in　the　moral　principle　set　forth　a　law　of　causality；　the
determining　principle　of　which　is　set　above　all　the　conditions　of
the　sensible　world；　we　have　it　conceived　how　the　will；　as　belonging　to
the　intelligible　world；　is　determinable；　and　therefore　we　therefore　we
have　its　subject　（man）　not　merely　conceived　as　belonging　to　a　world　of
pure　understanding；　and　in　this　respect　unknown　（which　the　critique　of
speculative　reason　enabled　us　to　do）；　but　also　defined　as　regards
his　causality　by　means　of　a　law　which　cannot　be　reduced　to　any
physical　law　of　the　sensible　world；　and　therefore　our　knowledge　is
extended　beyond　the　limits　of　that　world；　a　pretension　which　the
Critique　of　Pure　Reason　declared　to　be　futile　in　all　speculation。　Now；
how　is　the　practical　use　of　pure　reason　here　to　be　reconciled　with　the
theoretical；　as　to　the　determination　of　the　limits　of　its　faculty？
　　David　Hume；　of　whom　we　may　say　that　he　menced　the　assault　on
the　claims　of　pure　reason；　which　made　a　thorough　investigation　of　it
necessary；　argued　thus：　The　notion　of　cause　is　a　notion　that
involves　the　necessity　of　the　connexion　of　the　existence　of
different　things　（and　that；　in　so　far　as　they　are　different）；　so　that；
given　A；　I　know　that　something　quite　distinct　there　from；　namely　B；
must　necessarily　also　exist。　Now　necessity　can　be　attributed　to　a
connection；　only　in　so　far　as　it　is　known　a　priori；　for　experience
would　only　enable　us　to　know　of　such　a　connection　that　it　exists；
not　that　it　necessarily　exists。　Now；　it　is　impossible；　says　he；　to
know　a　priori　and　as　necessary　the　connection　between　one　thing　and
another　（or　between　one　attribute　and　another　quite　distinct）　when
they　have　not　been　given　in　experience。　Therefore　the　notion　of　a
cause　is　fictitious　and　delusive　and；　to　speak　in　the　mildest　way；
is　an　illusion；　only　excusable　inasmuch　as　the　custom　（a　subjective
necessity）　of　perceiving　certain　things；　or　their　attributes　as
often　associated　in　existence　along　with　or　in　succession　to　one
another；　is　insensibly　taken　for　an　objective　necessity　of　supposing
such　a　connection　in　the　objects　themselves；　and　thus　the　notion　of
a　cause　has　been　acquired　surreptitiously　and　not　legitimately；　nay；
it　can　never　be　so　acquired　or　authenticated；　since　it　demands　a
connection　in　itself　vain；　chimerical；　and　untenable　in　presence　of
reason；　and　to　which　no　object　can　ever　correspond。　In　this　way　was
empiricism　first　introduced　as　the　sole　source　of　principles；　as　far
as　all　knowledge　of　the　existence　of　things　is　concerned
（mathematics　therefore　remaining　excepted）；　and　with　empiricism　the
most　thorough　scepticism；　even　with　regard　to　the　whole　science　of
nature（　as　philosophy）。　For　on　such　principles　we　can　never　conclude
from　given　attributes　of　things　as　existing　to　a　consequence　（for　this
would　require　the　notion　of　cause；　which　involves　the　necessity　of
such　a　connection）；　we　can　only；　guided　by　imagination；　expect　similar
cases…　an　expectation　which　is　never　certain；　however　of　ten　it　has
been　fulfilled。　Of　no　event　could　we　say：　a　certain　thing　must　have
preceded　it；　on　which　it　necessarily　followed；　that　is；　it　must　have　a
cause；　and　therefore；　however　frequent　the　cases　we　have　known　in
which　there　was　such　an　antecedent；　so　that　a　rule　could　be　derived
from　them；　yet　we　never　could　suppose　it　as　always　and　necessarily
so　happening；　we　should；　therefore；　be　obliged　to　leave　its　share　to
blind　chance；　with　which　all　use　of　reason　es　to　an　end；　and　this
firmly　establishes　scepticism　in　reference　to　arguments　ascending　from
effects　to　causes　and　makes　it　impregnable。
　　Mathematics　escaped　well；　so　far；　because　Hume　thought　that　its
propositions　were　analytical；　that　is；　proceeded　from　one　property
to　another；　by　virtue　of　identity　and；　consequently；　according　to
the　principle　of　contradiction。　This；　however；　is　not　the　case；　since；
on　the　contrary；　they　are　synthetical；　and　although　geometry；　for
example；　has　not　to　do　with　the　existence　of　things；　but　only　with
their　a　priori　properties　in　a　possible　intuition；　yet　it　proceeds
just　as　in　the　case　of　the　causal　notion；　from　one　property　（A）　to
another　wholly　distinct　（B）；　as　necessarily　connected　with　the　former。
Nevertheless；　mathematical　science；　so　highly　vaunted　for　its
apodeictic　certainty；　must　at　last　fall　under　this　empiricism　for
the　same　reason　for　which　Hume　put　custom　in　the　place　of　objective
necessity　in　the　notion　of　cause　and；　in　spite　of　all　its　pride；
must　consent　to　lower　its　bold　pretension　of　claiming　assent　a
priori　and　depend　for　assent　to　the　universality　of　its　propositions
on　the　kindness　of　observers；　who；　when　called　as　witnesses；　would
surely　not　hesitate　to　admit　that　what　the　geometer　propounds　as　a
theorem　they　have　always　perceived　to　be　the　fact；　and；
consequently；　although　it　be　not　necessarily　true；　yet　they　would
permit　us　to　expect　it　to　be　true　in　the　future。　In　this　manner　Hume's
empiricism　leads　inevitably　to　scepticism；　even　with　regard　to
mathematics；　and　consequently　in　every　scientific　theoretical　use　of
reason　（for　this　belongs　either　to　philosophy　or　mathematics）。　Whether
with　such　a　terrible　overthrow　of　the　chief　branches　of　knowledge；
mon　reason　will　escape　better；　and　will　not　rather　bee
irrecoverably　involved　in　this　destruction　of　all　knowledge；　so　that
from　the　same　principles　a　universal　scepticism　should　follow
（affecting；　indeed；　only　the　learned）；　this　I　will　leave　everyone　to
judge　for　himself。
　　As　regards　my　own　labours　in　the　critical　examination　of　pure
reason；　which　were　occasioned　by　Hume's　sceptical　teaching；　but　went
much　further　and　embraced　the　whole　field　of　pure　theoretical　reason
in　its　synthetic　use　and；　consequently；　the　field　of　what　is　called
metaphysics　in　general；　I　proceeded　in　the　following　manner　with
respect　to　the　doubts　raised　by　the　Scottish　philosopher　touching
the　notion　of　causality。　If　Hume　took　the　objects　of　experience　for
things　in　themselves　（as　is　almost　always　done）；　he　was　quite　right　in
declaring　the　notion　of　cause　to　be　a　deception　and　false　illusion；
for　as　to　things　in　themselves；　and　their　attributes　as　such；　it　is
impossible　to　see　why　because　A　is　given；　B；　which　is　different；
must　necessarily　be　also　given；　and　therefore　he　could　by　no　means
admit　such　an　a　priori　knowledge　of　things　in　themselves。　Still　less
could　this　acute　writer　allow　an　empirical　origin　of　this　concept；
since　this　is　directly　contradictory　to　t