the expression of emotion in man and animals-第76章
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the Rev。 R。 H。 Blair； equally well with those gifted with eyesight。 We can thus also understand the fact that the young and the old of widely different races； both with man and animals； express the same state of mind by the same movements。
We are so familiar with the fact of young and old animals displaying their feelings in the same manner； that we hardly perceive how remarkable it is that a young puppy should wag its tail when pleased； depress its ears and uncover its canine teeth when pretending to be savage； just like an old dog； or that a kitten should arch its little back and erect its hair when frightened and angry； like an old cat。 When； however； we turn to less common gestures in ourselves； which we are accustomed to look at as artificial or conventional； such as shrugging the shoulders； as a sign of impotence； or the raising the arms with open hands and extended fingers； as a sign of wonder； we feel perhaps too much surprise at finding that they are innate。 That these and some other gestures are inherited； we may infer from their being performed by very young children； by those born blind； and by the most widely distinct races of man。 We should also bear in mind that new and highly peculiar tricks； in association with certain states of the mind； are known to have arisen in certain individuals； and to have been afterwards transmitted to their offspring； in some cases； for more than one generation。
Certain other gestures； which seem to us so natural that we might easily imagine that they were innate； apparently have been learnt like the words of a language。 This seems to be the case with the joining of the uplifted hands； and the turning up of the eyes； in prayer。 So it is with kissing as a mark of affection； but this is innate； in so far as it depends on the pleasure derived from contact with a beloved person。 The evidence with respect to the inheritance of nodding and shaking the head； as signs of affirmation and negation； is doubtful； for they are not universal； yet seem too general to have been independently acquired by all the individuals of so many races。
We will now consider how far the will and consciousness have come into play in the development of the various movements of expression。 As far as we can judge； only a few expressive movements； such as those just referred to； are learnt by each individual； that is； were consciously and voluntarily performed during the early years of life for some definite object； or in imitation of others； and then became habitual。 The far greater number of the movements of expression； and all the more important ones； are； as we have seen； innate or inherited； and such cannot be said to depend on the will of the individual。 Nevertheless； all those included under our first principle were at first voluntarily performed for a definite object；namely； to escape some danger； to relieve some distress； or to gratify some desire。 For instance； there can hardly be a doubt that the animals which fight with their teeth； have acquired the habit of drawing back their ears closely to their heads； when feeling savage； from their progenitors having voluntarily acted in this manner in order to protect their ears from being torn by their antagonists； for those animals which do not fight with their teeth do not thus express a savage state of mind。 We may infer as highly probable that we ourselves have acquired the habit of contracting the muscles round the eyes； whilst crying gently； that is； without the utterance of any loud sound； from our progenitors； especially during infancy； having experienced； during the act of screaming； an uncomfortable sensation in their eyeballs。 Again； some highly expressive movements result from the endeavour to cheek or prevent other expressive movements； thus the obliquity of the eyebrows and the drawing down of the corners of the mouth follow from the endeavour to prevent a screaming…fit from coming on； or to cheek it after it has come on。 Here it is obvious that the consciousness and will must at first have come into play； not that we are conscious in these or in other such cases what muscles are brought into action； any more than when we perform the most ordinary voluntary movements。
With respect to the expressive movements due to the principle of antithesis； it is clear that the will has intervened； though in a remote and indirect manner。 So again with the movements coming under our third principle； these； in as far as they are influenced by nerve…force readily passing along habitual channels； have been determined by former and repeated exertions of the will。 The effects indirectly due to this latter agency are often combined in a complex manner； through the force of habit and association； with those directly resulting from the excitement of the cerebro…spinal system。 This seems to be the case with the increased action of the heart under the influence of any strong emotion。 When an animal erects its hair； assumes a threatening attitude； and utters fierce sounds； in order to terrify an enemy； we see a curious combination of movements which were originally voluntary with those that are involuntary。 It is； however； possible that even strictly involuntary actions； such as the erection of the hair； may have been affected by the mysterious power of the will。
Some expressive movements may have arisen spontaneously； in association with certain states of the mind； like the tricks lately referred to； and afterwards been inherited。 But I know of no evidence rendering this view probable。
The power of communication between the members of the same tribe by means of language has been of paramount importance in the development of man； and the force of language is much aided by the expressive movements of the face and body。 We perceive this at once when we converse on an important subject with any person whose face is concealed。 Nevertheless there are no grounds； as far as I can discover； for believing that any muscle has been developed or even modified exclusively for the sake of expression。 The vocal and other sound…producing organs； by which various expressive noises are produced； seem to form a partial exception； but I have elsewhere attempted to show that these organs were first developed for sexual purposes； in order that one sex might call or charm the other。 Nor can I discover grounds for believing that any inherited movement； which now serves as a means of expression； was at first voluntarily and consciously performed for this special purpose；like some of the gestures and the finger…language used by the deaf and dumb。 On the contrary； every true or inherited movement of expression seems to have had some natural and independent origin。 But when once acquired； such movements may be voluntarily and consciously employed as a means of communication。 Even infants； if carefully attended to； find out at a very early age that their screaming brings relief； and they soon voluntarily practise it。 We may frequently see a person voluntarily raising his eyebrows to express surprise； or smiling to express pretended satisfaction and acquiescence。 A man often wishes to make certain gestures conspicuous or demonstrative； and will raise his extended arms with widely opened fingers above his head； to show astonishment； or lift his shoulders to his ears； to show that he cannot or will not do something。 The tendency to such movements will be strengthened or increased by their being thus voluntarily and repeatedly performed； and the effects may be inherited。
It is perhaps worth consideration whether movements at first used only by one or a few individuals to express a certain state of mind may not sometimes have spread to others； and ultimately have become universal； through the power of conscious and unconscious imitation。 That there exists in man a strong tendency to imitation； independently of the conscious will； is certain。 This is exhibited in the most extraordinary manner in certain brain diseases； especially at the commencement of inflammatory softening of the brain； and has been called the 〃echo sign。〃 Patients thus affected imitate； without understanding every absurd gesture which is made； and every word which is uttered near them； even in a foreign language。＇1＇
