the expression of emotion in man and animals-第13章
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tion； and consequently the tone of his whole muscular frame； and this may have been in part the cause。
We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression has arisen。 With social animals； the power of intercommunication between the members of the same community；and with other species； between the opposite sexes； as well as between the young and the old； is of the highest importance to them。 This is generally effected by means of the voice； but it is certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain extent mutually intelligible。 Man not only uses inarticulate cries； gestures； and expressions； but has invented articulate language； if； indeed； the word INVENTED can be applied to a process； completed by innumerable steps； half…consciously made。 Any one who has watched monkeys will not doubt that they perfectly understand each other's gestures and expression； and to a large extent； as Rengger asserts；＇1＇ those of man。 An animal when going to attack another； or when afraid of another； often makes itself appear terrible； by erecting its hair； thus increasing the apparent bulk of its body； by showing its teeth； or brandishing its horns； or by uttering fierce sounds。
As the power of intercommunication is certainly of high service to many animals； there is no _a priori_ improbability in the supposition； that gestures manifestly of an opposite nature to those by which certain feelings are already expressed； should at first have been voluntarily employed under the influence of an opposite state of feeling。 The fact of the gestures being now innate； would be no valid objection to the belief that they were at first intentional； for if practised during many generations； they would probably at last be inherited。 Nevertheless it is more than doubtful； as we shall immediately see； whether any of the cases which come under our present head of antithesis； have thus originated。
With conventional signs which are not innate； such as those used by the deaf and dumb and by savages； the principle of opposition or antithesis has been partially brought into play。 The Cistercian monks thought it sinful to speak； and as they could not avoid holding some communication； they invented a gesture language； in which the principle of opposition seems to have been employed。＇2＇ Dr。 Scott； of the Exeter Deaf and Dumb Institution； writes to me that 〃opposites are greatly used in teaching the deaf and dumb； who have a lively sense of them。〃 Nevertheless I have been surprised how few unequivocal instances can be adduced。 This depends partly on all the signs having commonly had some natural origin； and partly on the practice of the deaf and dumb and of savages to contract their signs as much as possible for the sake of rapidity？＇3＇ Hence their natural source or origin often becomes doubtful or is completely lost； as is likewise the case with articulate language。
＇1＇ ‘Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay；' 1830； s。 55。
＇2＇ Mr。 Tylor gives an account of the Cistercian gesture…language in his ‘Early History of Mankind' （2nd edit。 1870； p。 40）； and makes some remarks on the principle of opposition in gestures。
＇3＇ See on this subject Dr。 W。 R。 Scott's interesting work； ‘The Deaf and Dumb；' 2nd edit。 1870； p。 12。 He says； 〃This contracting of natural gestures into much shorter gestures than the natural expression requires； is very common amongst the deaf and dumb。 This contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as nearly to lose all semblance of the natural one； but to the deaf and dumb who use it； it still has the force of the original expression。〃
Many signs； moreover； which plainly stand in opposition to each other； appear to have had on both sides a significant origin。 This seems to hold good with the signs used by the deal and dumb for light and darkness； for strength and weakness； &c。 In a future chapter I shall endeavour to show that the opposite gestures of affirmation and negation； namely； vertically nodding and laterally shaking the head； have both probably had a natural beginning。 The waving of the hand from right to left； which is used as a negative by some savages； may have been invented in imitation of shaking the head； but whether the opposite movement of waving the hand in a straight line from the face； which is used in affirmation； has arisen through antithesis or in some quite distinct manner； is doubtful。
If we now turn to the gestures which are innate or common to all the individuals of the same species； and which come under the present head of antithesis； it is extremely doubtful； whether any of them were at first deliberately invented and consciously performed。 With mankind the best instance of a gesture standing in direct opposition to other movements； naturally assumed under an opposite frame of mind； is that of shrugging the shoulders。 This expresses impotence or an apology；something which cannot be done； or cannot be avoided。 The gesture is sometimes used consciously and voluntarily； but it is extremely improbable that it was at first deliberately invented； and afterwards fixed by habit； for not only do young children sometimes shrug their shoulders under the above states of mind； but the movement is accompanied； as will be shown in a future chapter； by various subordinate movements； which not one man in a thousand is aware of； unless he has specially attended to the subject。
Dogs when approaching a strange dog； may find it useful to show by their movements that they are friendly； and do not wish to fight。 When two young dogs in play are growling and biting each other's faces and legs； it is obvious that they mutually understand each other's gestures and manners。 There seems； indeed； some degree of instinctive knowledge in puppies and kittens； that they must not use their sharp little teeth or claws too freely in their play； though this sometimes happens and a squeal is the result； otherwise they would often injure each other's eyes。 When my terrier bites my hand in play； often snarling at the same time； if he bites too hard and I say GENTLY； GENTLY； he goes on biting； but answers me by a few wags of the tail； which seems to say 〃Never mind； it is all fun。〃 Although dogs do thus express； and may wish to express； to other dogs and to man； that they are in a friendly state of mind； it is incredible that they could ever have deliberately thought of drawing back and depressing their ears； instead of holding them erect；of lowering and wagging their tails； instead of keeping them stiff and upright； &c。； because they knew that these movements stood in direct opposition to those assumed under an opposite and savage frame of mind。
Again； when a cat； or rather when some early progenitor of the species； from feeling affectionate first slightly arched its back； held its tail perpendicularly upwards and pricked its ears； can it be believed that the animal consciously wished thus to show that its frame of mind was directly the reverse of that； when from being ready to fight or to spring on its prey； it assumed a crouching attitude； curled its tail from side to side and depressed its ears？ Even still less can I believe that my dog voluntarily put on his dejected attitude and 〃_hot…house face_；〃 which formed so complete a contrast to his previous cheerful attitude and whole bearing。 It cannot be supposed that he knew that I should understand his expression； and that he could thus soften my heart and make me give up visiting the hot…house。
Hence for the development of the movements which come under the present head； some other principle； distinct from the will and consciousness； must have intervened。 This principle appears to be that every movement which we have voluntarily performed throughout our lives has required the action of certain muscles； and when we have performed a directly opposite movement； an opposite set of muscles has been habitually brought into play； as in turning to the right or to the left； in pushing away or pulling an object towards us； and in lifting or lowering a weight。 So strongly are our intentions and movements associated together； that if we eagerly wish an object to move in any direction； we can hardly avoid moving our bodies in the same direction； although we may
