representative government-第58章

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erest；　they　all　require　to　have　the　same　things　done；　the　same　expenses　incurred；　and；　except　as　to　their　churches；　which　it　is　probably　desirable　to　leave　under　simply　parochial　management；　the　same　arrangements　may　be　made　to　serve　for　all。　Paving；　lighting；　water　supply；　drainage；　port　and　market　regulations；　cannot　without　great　waste　and　inconvenience　be　different　for　different　quarters　of　the　same　town。　The　subdivision　of　London　into　six　or　seven　independent　districts；　each　with　its　separate　arrangements　for　local　business　（several　of　them　without　unity　of　administration　even　within　themselves）；　prevents　the　possibility　of　consecutive　or　well　regulated　cooperation　for　common　objects；　precludes　any　uniform　principle　for　the　discharge　of　local　duties；　compels　the　general　government　to　take　things　upon　itself　which　would　be　best　left　to　local　authorities　if　there　were　any　whose　authority　extended　to　the　entire　metropolis；　and　answers　no　purpose　but　to　keep　up　the　fantastical　trappings　of　that　union　of　modern　jobbing　and　antiquated　foppery；　the　Corporation　of　the　City　of　London。　　　Another　equally　important　principle　is；　that　in　each　local　circumscription　there　should　be　but　one　elected　body　for　all　local　business；　not　different　bodies　for　different　parts　of　it。　Division　of　labour　does　not　mean　cutting　up　every　business　into　minute　fractions；　it　means　the　union　of　such　operations　as　are　fit　to　be　performed　by　the　same　persons；　and　the　separation　of　such　as　can　be　better　performed　by　different　persons。　The　executive　duties　of　the　locality　do　indeed　require　to　be　divided　into　departments；　for　the　same　reason　as　those　of　the　State；　because　they　are　of　diverse　kinds；　each　requiring　knowledge　peculiar　to　itself；　and　needing；　for　its　due　performance；　the　undivided　attention　of　a　specially　qualified　functionary。　But　the　reasons　for　subdivision　which　apply　to　the　execution　do　not　apply　to　the　control。　The　business　of　the　elective　body　is　not　to　do　the　work；　but　to　see　that　it　is　properly　done；　and　that　nothing　necessary　is　left　undone。　This　function　can　be　fulfilled　for　all　departments　by　the　same　superintending　body；　and　by　a　collective　and　comprehensive　far　better　than　by　a　minute　and　microscopic　view。　It　is　as　absurd　in　public　affairs　as　it　would　be　in　private　that　every　workman　should　be　looked　after　by　a　superintendent　to　himself。　The　Government　of　the　Crown　consists　of　many　departments；　and　there　are　many　ministers　to　conduct　them；　but　those　ministers　have　not　a　Parliament　apiece　to　keep　them　to　their　duty。　The　local；　like　the　national　Parliament；　has　for　its　proper　business　to　consider　the　interest　of　the　locality　as　a　whole；　composed　of　parts　all　of　which　must　be　adapted　to　one　another；　and　attended　to　in　the　order　and　ratio　of　their　importance。　　　There　is　another　very　weighty　reason　for　uniting　the　control　of　all　the　business　of　a　locality　under　one　body。　The　greatest　imperfection　of　popular　local　institutions；　and　the　chief　cause　of　the　failure　which　so　often　attends　them；　is　the　low　calibre　of　the　men　by　whom　they　are　almost　always　carried　on。　That　these　should　be　of　a　very　miscellaneous　character　is；　indeed；　part　of　the　usefulness　of　the　institution；　it　is　that　circumstance　chiefly　which　renders　it　a　school　of　political　capacity　and　general　intelligence。　But　a　school　supposes　teachers　as　well　as　scholars；　the　utility　of　the　instruction　greatly　depends　on　its　bringing　inferior　minds　into　contact　with　superior；　a　contact　which　in　the　ordinary　course　of　life　is　altogether　exceptional；　and　the　want　of　which　contributes　more　than　anything　else　to　keep　the　generality　of　mankind　on　one　level　of　contented　ignorance。　The　school；　moreover；　is　worthless；　and　a　school　of　evil　instead　of　good；　if　through　the　want　of　due　surveillance；　and　of　the　presence　within　itself　of　a　higher　order　of　characters；　the　action　of　the　body　is　allowed；　as　it　so　often　is；　to　degenerate　into　an　equally　unscrupulous　and　stupid　pursuit　of　the　self…interest　of　its　members。　Now　it　is　quite　hopeless　to　induce　persons　of　a　high　class；　either　socially　or　intellectually；　to　take　a　share　of　local　administration　in　a　corner　by　piece…meal；　as　members　of　a　Paving　Board　or　a　Drainage　Commission。　The　entire　local　business　of　their　town　is　not　more　than　a　sufficient　object　to　induce　men　whose　tastes　incline　them　and　whose　knowledge　qualifies　them　for　national　affairs　to　become　members　of　a　mere　local　body；　and　devote　to　it　the　time　and　study　which　are　necessary　to　render　their　presence　anything　more　than　a　screen　for　the　jobbing　of　inferior　persons　under　the　shelter　of　their　responsibility。　A　mere　Board　of　Works；　though　it　comprehend　the　entire　metropolis；　is　sure　to　be　composed　of　the　same　class　of　persons　as　the　vestries　of　the　London　parishes；　nor　is　it　practicable；　or　even　desirable；　that　such　should　not　form　the　majority；　but　it　is　important　for　every　purpose　which　local　bodies　are　designed　to　serve；　whether　it　be　the　enlightened　and　honest　performance　of　their　special　duties；　or　the　cultivation　of　the　political　intelligence　of　the　nation；　that　every　such　body　should　contain　a　portion　of　the　very　best　minds　of　the　locality：　who　are　thus　brought　into　perpetual　contact；　of　the　most　useful　kind；　with　minds　of　a　lower　grade；　receiving　from　them　what　local　or　professional　knowledge　they　have　to　give；　and　in　return　inspiring　them　with　a　portion　of　their　own　more　enlarged　ideas；　and　higher　and　more　enlightened　purposes。　　　A　mere　village　has　no　claim　to　a　municipal　representation。　By　a　village　I　mean　a　place　whose　inhabitants　are　not　markedly　distinguished　by　occupation　or　social　relations　from　those　of　the　rural　districts　adjoining；　and　for　whose　local　wants　the　arrangements　made　for　the　surrounding　territory　will　suffice。　Such　small　places　have　rarely　a　sufficient　public　to　furnish　a　tolerable　municipal　council：　if　they　contain　any　talent　or　knowledge　applicable　to　public　business；　it　is　apt　to　be　all　concentrated　in　some　one　man；　who　thereby　becomes　the　dominator　of　the　place。　It　is　better　that　such　places　should　be　merged　in　a　larger　circumscription。　The　local　representation　of　rural　districts　will　naturally　be　determined　by　geographical　considerations；　with　due　regard　to　those　sympathies　of　feeling　by　which　human　beings　are　so　much　aided　to　act　in　concert；　and　which　partly　follow　historical　boundaries；　such　as　those　of　counties　or　provinces；　and　partly　community　of　interest　and　occupation；　as　in　agriculture；　maritime；　manufacturing；　or　mining　districts。　Different　kinds　of　local　business　require　different　areas　of　representation。　The　Unions　of　parishes　have　been　fixed　on　as　the　most　appropriate　basis　for　the　representative　bodies　which　superintend　the　relief　of　indigence；　while；　for　the　proper　regulation　of　highways；　or　prisons；　or　police；　a　large　extent；　like　that　of　an　average　county；　is　not　more　than　sufficient。　In　these　large　districts；　therefore；　the　maxim；　that　an　elective　body　constituted　in　any　locality　should　have　authority　over　all　the　local　concerns　common　to　the　locality；　requires　modification　from　another　principle…　as　well　as　from　the　competing　consideration　of　the　importance　of　obtaining　for　the　discharge　of　the　local　duties　the　highest　qualifications　possible。　For　example；　if　it　be　necessary　（as　I　believe　it　to　be）　for　the　proper　administration　of　the　Poor　Laws　that　the　area　of　rating　should　not　be　more　extensive　than　most　of　the　present　Unions；　a　principle　which　requires　a　Board　of　Guardians　for　each　Union…　yet；　as　a　much　more　highly　qualified　class　of　persons　is　likely　to　be　obtainable　for　a　County　Board　than　those　who　compose　an　average　Board　of　Guardians；　it　may　on　that　ground　be　expedient　to　reserve　for　the　County　Boards　some　higher　descriptions　of　local　business；　which　might　otherwise　have　been　conveniently　managed　within　itself　by　each　separate　Union。　　　Besides　the　controlling　council；　or　local　sub…Parliament；　local　business　has　its　executive　department。　With　respect　to　this；　the　same　questions　arise　as　with　respect　to　the　executive　authorities　in　the　State；　and　they　may；　for　the　most　part；　be　answered　in　the　same　manner。　The　principles　applicable　to　all　public　trusts　are　in　substance　the　same。　In　the　first　place；　each　executive　officer　should　be　single；