representative government-第52章
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those of the rest； the purpose of the work is perpetually sacrificed to the work itself。 As a general rule； every executive function； whether superior or subordinate； should be the appointed duty of some given individual。 It should be apparent to all the world who did everything； and through whose default anything was left undone。 Responsibility is null when nobody knows who is responsible。 Nor； even when real； can it be divided without being weakened。 To maintain it at its highest there must be one person who receives the whole praise of what is well done； the whole blame of what is ill。 There are； however； two modes of sharing responsibility： by one it is only enfeebled； by the other； absolutely destroyed。 It is enfeebled when the concurrence of more than one functionary is required to the same act。 Each one among them has still a real responsibility； if a wrong has been done； none of them can say he did not do it； he is as much a participant as an accomplice is in an offence： if there has been legal criminality they may all be punished legally； and their punishment needs not be less severe than if there had been only one person concerned。 But it is not so with the penalties； any more than with the rewards； of opinion： these are always diminished by being shared。 Where there has been no definite legal offence； no corruption or malversation； only an error or an imprudence； or what may pass for such； every participator has an excuse to himself and to the world； in the fact that other persons are jointly involved with him。 There is hardly anything； even to pecuniary dishonesty； for which men will not feel themselves almost absolved； if those whose duty it was to resist and remonstrate have failed to do it； still more if they have given a formal assent。 In this case； however； though responsibility is weakened； there still is responsibility： every one of those implicated has in his individual capacity assented to； and joined in； the act。 Things are much worse when the act itself is only that of a majority… a Board； deliberating with closed doors； nobody knowing； or； except in some extreme case； being ever likely to know； whether an individual member voted for the act or against it。 Responsibility in this case is a mere name。 〃Boards；〃 it is happily said by Bentham； 〃are screens。〃 What 〃the Board〃 does is the act of nobody； and nobody can be made to answer for it。 The Board suffers； even in reputation； only in its collective character； and no individual member feels this further than his disposition leads him to identify his own estimation with that of the body… a feeling often very strong when the body is a permanent one； and he is wedded to it for better for worse； but the fluctuations of a modern official career give no time for the formation of such an esprit de corps； which if it exists at all； exists only in the obscure ranks of the permanent subordinates。 Boards； therefore； are not a fit instrument for executive business； and are only admissible in it when； for other reasons； to give full discretionary power to a single minister would be worse。 On the other hand； it is also a maxim of experience that in the multitude of counsellors there is wisdom； and that a man seldom judges right； even in his own concerns； still less in those of the public； when he makes habitual use of no knowledge but his own； or that of some single adviser。 There is no necessary incompatibility between this principle and the other。 It is easy to give the effective power； and the full responsibility； to one； providing him when necessary with advisers； each of whom is responsible only for the opinion he gives。 In general； the head of a department of the executive government is a mere politician。 He may be a good politician； and a man of merit； and unless this is usually the case； the government is bad。 But his general capacity； and the knowledge he ought to possess of the general interests of the country； will not； unless by occasional accident； be accompanied by adequate； and what may be called professional； knowledge of the department over which he is called to preside。 Professional advisers must therefore be provided for him。 Wherever mere experience and attainments are sufficient wherever the qualities required in a professional adviser may possibly be united in a single well…selected individual （as in the case； for example； of a law officer）； one such person for general purposes； and a staff of clerks to supply knowledge of details； meet the demands of the case。 But； more frequently； it is not sufficient that the minister should consult some one competent person； and； when himself not conversant with the subject； act implicitly on that person's advice。 It is often necessary that he should； not only occasionally but habitually； listen to a variety of opinions； and inform his judgment by the discussions among a body of advisers。 This； for example； is emphatically necessary in military and naval affairs。 The military and naval ministers； therefore； and probably several others； should be provided with a Council； composed； at least in those two departments； of able and experienced professional men。 As a means of obtaining the best men for the purpose under every change of administration； they ought to be permanent： by which I mean； that they ought not； like the Lords of the Admiralty； to be expected to resign with the ministry by whom they were appointed： but it is a good rule that all who hold high appointments to which they have risen by selection； and not by the ordinary course of promotion； should retain their office only for a fixed term； unless reappointed； as is now the rule with Staff appointments in the British army。 This rule renders appointments somewhat less likely to be jobbed； not being a provision for life； and the same time affords a means； without affront to any one； of getting rid of those who are least worth keeping； and bringing in highly qualified persons of younger standing； for whom there might never be room if death vacancies； or voluntary resignations； were waited for。 The Councils should be consultative merely； in this sense； that the ultimate decision should rest undividedly with the minister himself： but neither ought they to be looked upon； or to look upon themselves； as ciphers； or as capable of being reduced to such at his pleasure。 The advisers attached to a powerful and perhaps self…willed man ought to be placed under conditions which make it impossible for them； without discredit； not to express an opinion； and impossible for him not to listen to and consider their recommendations； whether he adopts them or not。 The relation which ought to exist between a chief and this description of advisers is very accurately hit by the constitution of the Council of the Governor…General and those of the different Presidencies in India。 These Councils are composed of persons who have professional knowledge of Indian affairs； which the Governor…General and Governors usually lack； and which it would not be desirable to require of them。 As a rule； every member of Council is expected to give an opinion； which is of course very often a simple acquiescence： but if there is a difference of sentiment； it is at the option of every member； and is the invariable practice； to record the reasons of his opinion： the Governor…General； or Governor； doing the same。 In ordinary cases the decision is according to the sense of the majority； the Council； therefore； has a substantial part in the government： but if the Governor…General； or Governor； thinks fit； he may set aside even their unanimous opinion； recording his reasons。 The result is； that the chief is individually and effectively responsible for every act of the Government。 The members of Council have only the responsibility of advisers； but it is always known； from documents capable of being produced； and which if called for by Parliament or public opinion always are produced； what each has advised； and what reasons he gave for his advice： while； from their dignified position； and ostensible participation in all acts of government； they have nearly as strong motives to apply themselves to the public business； and to form and express a well…considered opinion on every part of it； as if the wh
