representative government-第25章
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e community； nor is it rational to expect； as a consequence of such a position； any other conduct。 These things are superabundantly evident in the case of a monarchy or an aristocracy； but it is sometimes rather gratuitously assumed that the same kind of injurious influences do not operate in a democracy。 Looking at democracy in the way in which it is commonly conceived； as the rule of the numerical majority； it is surely possible that the ruling power may be under the dominion of sectional or class interests； pointing to conduct different from that which would be dictated by impartial regard for the interest of all。 Suppose the majority to be whites； the minority negroes； or vice versa： is it likely that the majority would allow equal justice to the minority？ Suppose the majority Catholics； the minority Protestants； or the reverse； will there not be the same danger？ Or let the majority be English； the minority Irish； or the contrary： is there not a great probability of similar evil？ In all countries there is a majority of poor； a minority who； in contradistinction； may be called rich。 Between these two classes； on many questions； there is complete opposition of apparent interest。 We will suppose the majority sufficiently intelligent to be aware that it is not for their advantage to weaken the security of property； and that it would be weakened by any act of arbitrary spoliation。 But is there not a considerable danger lest they should throw upon the possessors of what is called realised property； and upon the larger incomes； an unfair share； or even the whole； of the burden of taxation； and having done so； add to the amount without scruple； expending the proceeds in modes supposed to conduce to the profit and advantage of the labouring class？ Suppose； again； a minority of skilled labourers； a majority of unskilled： the experience of many trade unions； unless they are greatly calumniated； justifies the apprehension that equality of earnings might be imposed as an obligation； and that piecework； payment by the hour； and all practices which enable superior industry or abilities to gain a superior reward might be put down。 Legislative attempts to raise wages； limitation of competition in the labour market； taxes or restrictions on machinery； and on improvements of all kinds tending to dispense with any of the existing labour… even； perhaps； protection of the home producer against foreign industry are very natural （I do not venture to say whether probable） results of a feeling of class interest in a governing majority of manual labourers。 It will be said that none of these things are for the real interest of the most numerous class： to which I answer； that if the conduct of human beings was determined by no other interested considerations than those which constitute their 〃real〃 interest； neither monarchy nor oligarchy would be such bad governments as they are； for assuredly very strong arguments may be； and often have been； adduced to show that either a king or a governing senate are in much the most enviable position； when ruling justly and vigilantly over an active； wealthy； enlightened； and high…minded people。 But a king only now and then； and an oligarchy in no known instance； have taken this exalted view of their self…interest： and why should we expect a loftier mode of thinking from the labouring classes？ It is not what their interest is； but what they suppose it to be； that is the important consideration with respect to their conduct： and it is quite conclusive against any theory of government that it assumes the numerical majority to do habitually what is never done； nor expected to be done； save in very exceptional cases； by any other depositaries of power… namely； to direct their conduct by their real ultimate interest； in opposition to their immediate and apparent interest。 No one； surely； can doubt that many of the pernicious measures above enumerated； and many others as bad； would be for the immediate interest of the general body of unskilled labourers。 It is quite possible that they would be for the selfish interest of the whole existing generation of the class。 The relaxation of industry and activity； and diminished encouragement to saving which would be their ultimate consequence； might perhaps be little felt by the class of unskilled labourers in the space of a single lifetime。 Some of the most fatal changes in human affairs have been； as to their more manifest immediate effects； beneficial。 The establishment of the despotism of the Caesars was a great benefit to the entire generation in which it took place。 It put a stop to civil war； abated a vast amount of malversation and tyranny by praetors and proconsuls； it fostered many of the graces of life； and intellectual cultivation in all departments not political； it produced monuments of literary genius dazzling to the imaginations of shallow readers of history； who do not reflect that the men to whom the despotism of Augustus （as well as of Lorenzo de' Medici and of Louis XIV。） owes its brilliancy； were all formed in the generation preceding。 The accumulated riches； and the mental energy and activity； produced by centuries of freedom； remained for the benefit of the first generation of slaves。 Yet this was the commencement of a regime by whose gradual operation all the civilisation which had been gained insensibly faded away； until the Empire； which had conquered and embraced the world in its grasp； so completely lost even its military efficiency； that invaders whom three or four legions had always sufficed to coerce were able to overrun and occupy nearly the whole of its vast territory。 The fresh impulse given by Christianity came but just in time to save arts and letters from perishing； and the human race from sinking back into perhaps endless night。 When we talk of the interest of a body of men； or even of an individual man； as a principle determining their actions； the question what would be considered their interest by an unprejudiced observer is one of the least important parts of the whole matter。 As Coleridge observes； the man makes the motive； not the motive the man。 What it is the man's interest to do or refrain from depends less on any outward circumstances than upon what sort of man he is。 If you wish to know what is practically a man's interest； you must know the cast of his habitual feelings and thoughts。 Everybody has two kinds of interests； interests which he cares for； and interests which he does not care for。 Everybody has selfish and unselfish interests； and a selfish man has cultivated the habit of caring for the former； and not caring for the latter。 Every one has present and distant interests； and the improvident man is he who cares for the present interests and does not care for the distant。 It matters little that on any correct calculation the latter may be the more considerable； if the habits of his mind lead him to fix his thoughts and wishes solely on the former。 It would be vain to attempt to persuade a man who beats his wife and ill…treats his children that he would be happier if he lived in love and kindness with them。 He would be happier if he were the kind of person who could so live； but he is not； and it is probably too late for him to become； that kind of person。 Being what he is； the gratification of his love of domineering； and the indulgence of his ferocious temper； are to his perceptions a greater good to himself than he would be capable of deriving from the pleasure and affection of those dependent on him。 He has no pleasure in their pleasure； and does not care for their affection。 His neighbour； who does； is probably a happier man than he； but could he be persuaded of this； the persuasion would； most likely； only still further exasperate his malignity or his irritability。 On the average； a person who cares for other people； for his country； or for mankind； is a happier man than one who does not； but of what use is it to preach this doctrine to a man who cares for nothing but his own ease； or his own pocket？ He cannot care for other people if he would。 It is like preaching to the worm who crawls on the ground how much better it would be for him if he were an eagle。 Now it is a universally observed fact that the two evil di
