representative government-第24章

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　on　revolving　mechanically　though　the　work　it　is　intended　to　do　remains　undone。　A　bureaucracy　always　tends　to　become　a　pedantocracy。　When　the　bureaucracy　is　the　real　government；　the　spirit　of　the　corps　（as　with　the　Jesuits）　bears　down　the　individuality　of　its　more　distinguished　members。　In　the　profession　of　government；　as　in　other　professions；　the　sole　idea　of　the　majority　is　to　do　what　they　have　been　taught；　and　it　requires　a　popular　government　to　enable　the　conceptions　of　the　man　of　original　genius　among　them　to　prevail　over　the　obstructive　spirit　of　trained　mediocrity。　Only　in　a　popular　government　（setting　apart　the　accident　of　a　highly　intelligent　despot）　could　Sir　Rowland　Hill　have　been　victorious　over　the　Post　Office。　A　popular　government　installed　him　in　the　Post　Office；　and　made　the　body；　in　spite　of　itself；　obey　the　impulse　given　by　the　man　who　united　special　knowledge　with　individual　vigour　and　originality。　That　the　Roman　aristocracy　escaped　this　characteristic　disease　of　a　bureaucracy　was　evidently　owing　to　its　popular　element。　All　special　offices；　both　those　which　gave　a　seat　in　the　Senate　and　those　which　were　sought　by　senators；　were　conferred　by　popular　election。　The　Russian　government　is　a　characteristic　exemplification　of　both　the　good　and　bad　side　of　bureaucracy；　its　fixed　maxims；　directed　with　Roman　perseverance　to　the　same　unflinchingly…pursued　ends　from　age　to　age；　the　remarkable　skill　with　which　those　ends　are　generally　pursued；　the　frightful　internal　corruption；　and　the　permanent　organised　hostility　to　improvements　from　without；　which　even　the　autocratic　power　of　a　vigorous…minded　Emperor　is　seldom　or　never　sufficient　to　overcome；　the　patient　obstructiveness　of　the　body　being　in　the　long　run　more　than　a　match　for　the　fitful　energy　of　one　man。　The　Chinese　Government；　a　bureaucracy　of　Mandarins；　is；　as　far　as　known　to　us；　another　apparent　example　of　the　same　qualities　and　defects。　　　In　all　human　affairs　conflicting　influences　are　required　to　keep　one　another　alive　and　efficient　even　for　their　own　proper　uses；　and　the　exclusive　pursuit　of　one　good　object；　apart　from　some　other　which　should　accompany　it；　ends　not　in　excess　of　one　and　defect　of　the　other；　but　in　the　decay　and　loss　even　of　that　which　has　been　exclusively　cared　for。　Government　by　trained　officials　cannot　do；　for　a　country；　the　things　which　can　be　done　by　a　free　government；　but　it　might　be　supposed　capable　of　doing　some　things　which　free　government；　of　itself；　cannot　do。　We　find；　however；　that　an　outside　element　of　freedom　is　necessary　to　enable　it　to　do　effectually　or　permanently　even　its　own　business。　And　so；　also；　freedom　cannot　produce　its　best　effects；　and　often　breaks　down　altogether；　unless　means　can　be　found　of　combining　it　with　trained　and　skilled　administration。　There　could　not　be　a　moment's　hesitation　between　representative　government；　among　a　people　in　any　degree　ripe　for　it；　and　the　most　perfect　imaginable　bureaucracy。　But　it　is；　at　the　same　time；　one　of　the　most　important　ends　of　political　institutions；　to　attain　as　many　of　the　qualities　of　the　one　as　are　consistent　with　the　other；　to　secure；　as　far　as　they　can　be　made　compatible；　the　great　advantage　of　the　conduct　of　affairs　by　skilled　persons；　bred　to　it　as　an　intellectual　profession；　along　with　that　of　a　general　control　vested　in；　and　seriously　exercised　by；　bodies　representative　of　the　entire　people。　Much　would　be　done　towards　this　end　by　recognising　the　line　of　separation；　discussed　in　the　preceding　chapter；　between　the　work　of　government　properly　so　called；　which　can　only　be　well　performed　after　special　cultivation；　and　that　of　selecting；　watching；　and；　when　needful；　controlling　the　governors；　which　in　this　case；　as　in　others；　properly　devolves；　not　on　those　who　do　the　work；　but　on　those　for　whose　benefit　it　ought　to　be　done。　No　progress　at　all　can　be　made　towards　obtaining　a　skilled　democracy　unless　the　democracy　are　willing　that　the　work　which　requires　skill　should　be　done　by　those　who　possess　it。　A　democracy　has　enough　to　do　in　providing　itself　with　an　amount　of　mental　competency　sufficient　for　its　own　proper　work；　that　of　superintendence　and　check。　　　How　to　obtain　and　secure　this　amount　is　one　of　the　questions　to　taken　into　consideration　in　judging　of　the　proper　constitution　of　a　representative　body。　In　proportion　as　its　composition　fails　to　secure　this　amount；　the　assembly　will　encroach；　by　special　acts；　on　the　province　of　the　executive；　it　will　expel　a　good；　or　elevate　and　uphold　a　bad；　ministry；　it　will　connive　at；　or　overlook　in　them；　abuses　of　trust；　will　be　deluded　by　their　false　pretences；　or　will　withhold　support　from　those　who　endeavour　to　fulfil　their　trust　conscientiously；　it　will　countenance；　or　impose；　a　selfish；　a　capricious　and　impulsive；　a　short…sighted；　ignorant；　and　prejudiced　general　policy；　foreign　and　domestic；　it　will　abrogate　good　laws；　or　enact　bad　ones；　let　in　new　evils；　or　cling　with　perverse　obstinacy　to　old；　it　will　even；　perhaps；　under　misleading　impulses；　momentary　or　permanent；　emanating　from　itself　or　from　its　constituents；　tolerate　or　connive　at　proceedings　which　set　law　aside　altogether；　in　cases　where　equal　justice　would　not　be　agreeable　to　popular　feeling。　Such　are　among　the　dangers　of　representative　government；　arising　from　a　constitution　of　the　representation　which　does　not　secure　an　adequate　amount　of　intelligence　and　knowledge　in　the　representative　assembly。

　　We　next　proceed　to　the　evils　arising　from　the　prevalence　of　modes　of　action　in　the　representative　body；　dictated　by　sinister　interests　（to　employ　the　useful　phrase　introduced　by　Bentham）；　that　is；　interests　conflicting　more　or　less　with　the　general　good　of　the　community。　　　It　is　universally　admitted　that；　of　the　evils　incident　to　monarchical　and　aristocratic　governments；　a　large　proportion　arise　from　this　cause。　The　interest　of　the　monarch；　or　the　interest　of　the　aristocracy；　either　collective　or　that　of　its　individual　members；　is　promoted；　or　they　themselves　think　that　it　will　be　promoted；　by　conduct　opposed　to　that　which　the　general　interest　of　the　community　requires。　The　interest；　for　example；　of　the　government　is　to　tax　heavily：　that　of　the　community　is　to　be　as　little　taxed　as　the　necessary　expenses　of　good　government　permit。　The　interest　of　the　king；　and　of　the　governing　aristocracy；　is　to　possess；　and　exercise；　unlimited　power　over　the　people；　to　enforce；　on　their　part；　complete　conformity　to　the　will　and　preferences　of　the　rulers。　The　interest　of　the　people　is　to　have　as　little　control　exercised　over　them　in　any　respect　as　is　consistent　with　attaining　the　legitimate　ends　of　government。　The　interest；　or　apparent　and　supposed　interest；　of　the　king　or　aristocracy　is　to　permit　no　censure　of　themselves；　at　least　in　any　form　which　they　may　consider　either　to　threaten　their　power；　or　seriously　to　interfere　with　their　free　agency。　The　interest　of　the　people　is　that　there　should　be　full　liberty　of　censure　on　every　public　officer；　and　on　every　public　act　or　measure。　The　interest　of　a　ruling　class；　whether　in　an　aristocracy　or　an　aristocratic　monarchy；　is　to　assume　to　themselves　an　endless　variety　of　unjust　privileges；　sometimes　benefiting　their　pockets　at　the　expense　of　the　people；　sometimes　merely　tending　to　exalt　them　above　others；　or；　what　is　the　same　thing　in　different　words；　to　degrade　others　below　themselves。　If　the　people　are　disaffected；　which　under　such　a　government　they　are　very　likely　to　be；　it　is　the　interest　of　the　king　or　aristocracy　to　keep　them　at　a　low　level　of　intelligence　and　education；　foment　dissensions　among　them；　and　even　prevent　them　from　being　too　well　off；　lest　they　should　〃wax　fat；　and　kick〃；　agreeably　to　the　maxim　of　Cardinal　Richelieu　in　his　celebrated　Testament　Politique。　All　these　things　are　for　the　interest　of　a　king　or　aristocracy；　in　a　purely　selfish　point　of　view；　unless　a　sufficiently　strong　counter…interest　is　created　by　the　fear　of　provoking　resistance。　All　these　evils　have　been；　and　many　of　them　still　are；　produced　by　the　sinister　interests　of　kings　and　aristocracies；　where　their　power　is　sufficient　to　raise　them　above　the　opinion　of　the　rest　of　the　community；　nor　is　it　rational　to　expect；　as　a　consequence　of　such　a　position；　any　other　conduct。