darwin and modern science-第148章
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ividual and evolution in the race； the accompanying mental processes undergo a like development。 Into the subtle philosophical questions which arise out of the naive acceptance of such a creed it was not Darwin's province to enter； 〃I have nothing to do；〃 he said （〃Origin of Species〃 （6th edition）； page 205。）； 〃with the origin of the mental powers； any more than I have with that of life itself。〃 He dealt with the natural history of organisms； including not only their structure but their modes of behaviour； with the natural history of the states of consciousness which accompany some of their actions； and with the relation of behaviour to experience。 We will endeavour to follow Darwin in his modesty and candour in making no pretence to give ultimate explanations。 But we must note one of the implications of this self… denying ordinance of science。 Development and evolution imply continuity。 For Darwin and his followers the continuity is organic through physical heredity。 Apart from speculative hypothesis； legitimate enough in its proper place but here out of court； we know nothing of continuity of mental evolution as such： consciousness appears afresh in each succeeding generation。 Hence it is that for those who follow Darwin's lead； mental evolution is and must ever be； within his universe of discourse； subservient to organic evolution。 Only in so far as conscious experience； or its neural correlate； effects some changes in organic structure can it influence the course of heredity； and conversely only in so far as changes in organic structure are transmitted through heredity； is mental evolution rendered possible。 Such is the logical outcome of Darwin's teaching。
Those who abide by the cardinal results of this teaching are bound to regard all behaviour as the expression of the functional activities of the living tissues of the organism； and all conscious experience as correlated with such activities。 For the purposes of scientific treatment； mental processes are one mode of expression of the same changes of which the physiological processes accompanying behaviour are another mode of expression。 This is simply accepted as a fact which others may seek to explain。 The behaviour itself is the adaptive application of the energies of the organism； it is called forth by some form of presentation or stimulation brought to bear on the organism by the environment。 This presentation is always an individual or personal matter。 But in order that the organism may be fitted to respond to the presentation of the environment it must have undergone in some way a suitable preparation。 According to the theory of evolution this preparation is primarily racial and is transmitted through heredity。 Darwin's main thesis was that the method of preparation is predominantly by natural selection。 Subordinate to racial preparation； and always dependent thereon； is individual or personal preparation through some kind of acquisition； of which the guidance of behaviour through individually won experience is a typical example。 We here introduce the mental factor because the facts seem to justify the inference。 Thus there are some modes of behaviour which are wholly and solely dependent upon inherited racial preparation； there are other modes of behaviour which are also dependent； in part at least； on individual preparation。 In the former case the behaviour is adaptive on the first occurrence of the appropriate presentation； in the latter case accommodation to circumstances is only reached after a greater or less amount of acquired organic modification of structure； often accompanied （as we assume） in the higher animals by acquired experience。 Logically and biologically the two classes of behaviour are clearly distinguishable： but the analysis of complex cases of behaviour where the two factors cooperate； is difficult and requires careful and critical study of life…history。
The foundations of the mental life are laid in the conscious experience that accompanies those modes of behaviour； dependent entirely on racial preparation； which may broadly be described as instinctive。 In the eighth chapter of 〃The Origin of Species〃 Darwin says （〃Origin of Species〃 （6th edition）； page 205。）； 〃I will not attempt any definition of instinct。。。Every one understands what is meant； when it is said that instinct impels the cuckoo to migrate and to lay her eggs in other birds' nests。 An action； which we ourselves require experience to enable us to perform； when performed by an animal； more especially by a very young one； without experience； and when performed by many individuals in the same way； without their knowing for what purpose it is performed； is usually said to be instinctive。〃 And in the summary at the close of the chapter he says （〃Origin of Species〃 （6th edition）； page 233。）； 〃I have endeavoured briefly to show that the mental qualities of our domestic animals vary； and that the variations are inherited。 Still more briefly I have attempted to show that instincts vary slightly in a state of nature。 No one will dispute that instincts are of the highest importance to each animal。 Therefore there is no real difficulty； under changing conditions of life； in natural selection accumulating to any extent slight modifications of instinct which are in any way useful。 In many cases habit or use and disuse have probably come into play。〃
Into the details of Darwin's treatment there is neither space nor need to enter。 There are some ambiguous passages； but it may be said that for him； as for his followers to…day； instinctive behaviour is wholly the result of racial preparation transmitted through organic heredity。 For the performance of the instinctive act no individual preparation under the guidance of personal experience is necessary。 It is true that Darwin quotes with approval Huber's saying that 〃a little dose of judgment or reason often comes into play； even with animals low in the scale of nature。〃 （Ibid。 page 205。） But we may fairly interpret his meaning to be that in behaviour； which is commonly called instinctive； some element of intelligent guidance is often combined。 If this be conceded the strictly instinctive performance （or part of the performance） is the outcome of heredity and due to the direct transmission of parental or ancestral aptitudes。 Hence the instinctive response as such depends entirely on how the nervous mechanism has been built up through heredity； while intelligent behaviour； or the intelligent factor in behaviour； depends also on how the nervous mechanism has been modified and moulded by use during its development and concurrently with the growth of individual experience in the customary situations of daily life。 Of course it is essential to the Darwinian thesis that what Sir E。 Ray Lankester has termed 〃educability；〃 not less than instinct； is hereditary。 But it is also essential to the understanding of this thesis that the differentiae of the hereditary factors should be clearly grasped。
For Darwin there were two modes of racial preparation； （1） natural selection； and （2） the establishment of individually acquired habit。 He showed that instincts are subject to hereditary variation； he saw that instincts are also subject to modification through acquisition in the course of individual life。 He believed that not only the variations but also； to some extent； the modifications are inherited。 He therefore held that some instincts （the greater number） are due to natural selection but that others （less numerous） are due； or partly due； to the inheritance of acquired habits。 The latter involve Lamarckian inheritance； which of late years has been the centre of so much controversy。 It is noteworthy however that Darwin laid especial emphasis on the fact that many of the most typical and also the most complex instinctsthose of neuter insectsdo not admit of such an interpretation。 〃I am surprised；〃 he says （〃Origin of Species〃 （6th edition）； page 233。）； 〃that no one has hitherto advanced this demonstrative case of neuter insects； against the well…known doctrine of inherited habit； as advanced by Lamarck。〃 None the less Darwin admitted this doctrine as supplementary to that which was more distinctively his ownfor exa
