the vested interests and the common man-第6章

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change　in　the　state　of　the　industrial　arts；　which　has　materially　
altered　the　scope　and　method　of　industry　and　the　conditions　under　
which　men　live　in　all　the　civilised　countries。　Accordingly；　as　a　
point　of　comparison；　it　will　be　to　the　purpose　to　call　to　mind　
what　were　the　material　circumstances；　and　more　particularly　the　
state　of　the　industrial　arts；　which　underlay　and　gave　character　
to　the　modern　point　of　view　at　the　period　when　its　constituent　
principles　were　found　good　and　worked　out　as　a　stable　and　
articulate　system；　in　the　shape　in　which　they　have　continued　to　
be　held　since　then。　
　　　　The　material　conditions　of　industry；　trade　and　daily　life　
during　the　period　of　transition　and　approach　to　this　modern　
ground　created　that　frame　of　mind　which　we　call　the　modern　point　
of　view　and　dictated　that　reconstruction　of　institutional　
arrangements　which　has　been　worked　out　under　its　guidance。　
Therefore　the　economic　situation　which　so　underlay　and　
conditioned　this　modern　point　of　view　at　the　period　when　it　was　
given　its　stable　form　becomes　the　necessary　point　of　departure　
for　any　argument　bearing　on　the　changes　that　have　been　going　
forward　since　then；　or　on　any　prospective　reconstruction　that　may　
be　due　to　follow　from　these　changed　conditions　in　the　calculable　
future。　An　this　head；　the　students　of　history　are　in　a　singularly　
fortunate　position。　The　whole　case　is　set　forth　in　the　works　of　
Adam　Smith；　with　a　comprehension　and　lucidity　which　no　longer　
calls　for　praise。　Beyond　all　other　men　Adam　Smith　is　the　approved　
and　faithful　spokesman　of　this　modern　point　of　view　in　all　that　
concerns　the　economic　situation　which　it　assumes　as　its　material　
ground；　and　his　description　of　the　state　of　civilised　society；　
trade　and　industry；　as　he　saw　it　in　his　time　and　as　he　wished　it　
to　stand　over　into　the　future；　is　to　be　taken　without　abatement　
as　a　competent　exposition　of　those　material　conditions　which　were　
then　conceived　to　underlie　civilised　society　and　to　dictate　the　
only　sound　reconstruction　of　civil　and　economic　institutions　
according　to　the　modern　plan。　
　　　　But　like　other　men。　Adam　Smith　was　a　creature　of　his　own　
time；　and　what　he　has　to　say　applies　to　the　state　of　things　as　he　
saw　them。　What　he　describes　and　inquires　into　is　that　state　of　
things　which　was　to　him　the　〃historical　present〃；　which　always　
signifies　the　recent　past；　　that　is　to　say；　the　past　as　it　had　
come　under　his　observation　and　as　it　had　shaped　his　outlook。　
　　　　As　it　is　conventionally　dated；　the　Industrial　Revolution　took　
effect　within　Adam　Smith's　active　lifetime；　and　some　of　its　more　
significant　beginnings　passed　immediately　under　his　eyes；　indeed；　
it　is　related　that　he　took　an　active　personal　interest　in　at　
least　one　of　the　epoch…making　mechanical　inventions　from　which　
the　era　of　the　machine　industry　takes　its　date。　Yet　the　
Industrial　Revolution　does　not　lie　within　Adam　Smith's　
〃historical　present；〃　nor　does　his　system　of　economic　doctrines　
make　provision　for　any　of　its　peculiar　issues。　What　he　has　to　say　
on　the　mechanics　of　industry　is　conceived　in　terms　derived　from　
an　older　order　of　things　than　that　machine　industry　which　was　
beginning　to　get　under　way　in　his　own　life…time；　and　all　his　
illustrative　instances　and　arguments　on　trade　and　industry　are　
also　such　as　would　apply　to　the　state　of　things　that　was　passing；　
but　they　are　not　drawn　with　any　view　to　that　new　order　which　was　
then　coming　on　in　the　world　of　business　enterprise。　
　　　　The　economic　situation　contemplated　by　Adam　Smith　as　the　
natural　（and　ultimate）　state　of　industry　and　trade　in　any　
enlightened　society；　conducted　on　sane　and　sound　lines　according　
to　the　natural　order　of　human　relations；　was　of　a　simple　
structure　and　may　be　drawn　in　few　lines；　　neglecting　such　minor　
extensions　and　exceptions　as　would　properly　be　taken　account　of　
in　any　exhaustive　description。　Industry　is　conceived　to　be　of　the　
nature　of　handicraft；　not　of　the　nature　of　mechanical　
engineering；　such　as　it　has　in　effect　and　progressively　come　to　
be　since　his　time。　It　is　described　as　a　matter　of　workmanlike　
labor；　〃and　of　the　skill；　dexterity　and　judgment　with　which　it　is　
commonly　applied。〃　It　is　a　question　of　the　skilled　workman　and　
his　use　of　tools。　Mechanical　inventions　are　〃labor…saving　
devices；〃　which　〃facilitate　and　abridge　labor。〃　The　material　
equipment　is　the　ways　and　means　by　manipulation　of　which　the　
workman　gets　his　work　done。　〃Capital　stock〃　is　spoken　of　as　
savings　parsimoniously　accumulated　out　of　the　past　industry　of　
its　owner；　or　out　of　the　industry　of　those　persons　from　whom　he　
has　legally　acquired　it　by　inheritance　or　in　exchange　for　the　
products　of　his　own　labor。　Business　is　of　the　nature　of　〃petty　
trade〃　and　the　business　man　is　a　〃middle　man〃　who　is　employed　for　
a　livelihood　in　the　distribution　of　goods　to　the　consumers。　Trade　
is　subsidiary　to　industry；　and　money　is　a　vehicle　designed　to　be　
used　for　the　distribution　of　goods。　Credit　is　an　expedient　of　the　
needy；　a　dubious　expedient。　Profits　（including　interest）　are　
justified　as　a　reasonable　remuneration　for　productive　work　done；　
and　for　the　labor…saving　use　of　property　derived　from　the　owner's　
past　labor。　The　efforts　of　masters　and　workmen　alike　are　
conceived　to　be　bent　on　turning　out　the　largest　and　most　
serviceable　output　of　goods；　and　prices　are　competitively　
determined　by　the　labor…cost　of　the　goods。　
　　　　Like　other　men　Adam　Smith　did　not　see　into　the　future　beyond　
what　was　calculable　on　the　data　given　by　his　own　historical　
present；　and　in　his　time　that　later　and　greater　era　of　investment　
and　financial　enterprise　which　has　made　industry　subsidiary　to　
business　was　only　beginning　to　get　under　way　and　only　obscurely　
so。　So　that　he　was　still　able　to　think　of　commercial　enterprise　
as　a　middle…man's　traffic　in　merchandise；　subsidiary　to　a　
small…scale　industry　on　the　order　of　handicraft；　and　due　to　an　
assumed　propensity　in　men　〃to　truck；　barter；　and　exchange　one　
thing　for　another。〃　And　so　much　as　he　could　not　help　seeing　of　
the　new　order　of　business　enterprise　which　was　coming　in　was　not　
rated　by　him　as　a　sane　outgrowth　of　that　system　of　Natural　
Liberty　for　which　he　spoke　and　about　which　his　best　affections　
gathered。　In　all　this　he　was　at　one　with　his　thoughtful　
contemporaries。　
　　　　That　generation　of　public…spirited　men　went；　perforce；　on　the　
scant　data　afforded　by　their　own　historical　present；　the　economic　
situation　as　they　saw　it　in　the　perspective　and　with　the　
preconceptions　of　their　own　time；　and　to　them　it　was　accordingly　
plain　that　when　all　unreasonable　restrictions　are　taken　away；　
〃the　obvious　and　simple　system　of　natural　liberty　establishes　
itself　of　its　own　accord。〃　To　this　〃natural〃　plan　of　free　
workmanship　and　free　trade　all　restraint　or　retardation　by　
collusion　among　business　men　was　wholly　obnoxious；　and　all　
collusive　control　of　industry　or　of　the　market　was　accordingly　
execrated　as　unnatural　and　subversive。　It　is　true；　there　were　
even　then　some　appreciable　beginnings　of　coercion　and　retardation　
　lowering　of　wages　and　limitation　of　output　　by　collusion　
between　owners　and　employers　who　should　by　nature　have　been　
competitive　producers　of　an　unrestrained　output　of　goods　and　
services　according　to　the　principles　of　that　modern　point　of　view　
which　animated　Adam　Smith　and　his　generation；　but　coercion　and　
unearned　gain　by　a　combination　of　ownership；　of　the　now　familiar　
corporate　type；　was　virtually　unknown　in　his　time。　So　Adam　Smith　
saw　and　denounced　the　dangers　of　unfair　combination　between　
〃masters〃　for　the　exploitation　of　their　workmen；　but　the　modern　
use　of　credit　and　corporation　finance　for　the　collective　control　
of　the　labor　market　and　the　goods　market　of　course　does　not　come　
within　his　horizon　and　does　not　engage　his　attention。　
　　　　So　also　Adam　Smith　knows　and　denounces　the　use　of　protective　
tariffs　for　private　gain。　That　means　of　pilfering　was　familiar　
enough　in　his　time。　But　he　spends　little　indignation　on　the　
equally　nefarious　use　of　the　national　establishment　for　
safe…guarding　and　augmenting　the　profits　of　traders；　
concess