the evolution of modern medicine(现代医药的演变)-第7章
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hands of the Greeks； and later of the Arabs； this sign passed with it。 It was
also adopted to some extent by the Gnostics of the early Christian church
in Egypt。 In a cursive form it is found in mediaeval translations of the
works of Ptolemy the astrologer； as the sign of the planet Jupiter。 As such
it was placed upon horoscopes and upon formula containing drugs made
for administration to the body； so that the harmful properties of these
drugs might be removed under the influence of the lucky planet。 At
present； in a slightly modified form； it still figures at the top of
prescriptions written daily in Great Britain （Rx）。〃＇11＇
＇11＇ John D。 Comrie： Medicine among the Assyrians and Egyptians in
1500 B。C。； Edinburgh Medical Journal； 1909； n。 s。； II； 119。
For centuries Egyptian physicians had a great reputation； and in the
Odyssey （Bk。 IV）； Polydamna； the wife of Thonis； gives medicinal plants
to Helen in Egypt〃a country producing an infinite number of drugs 。 。 。
where each physician possesses knowledge above all other men。〃
Jeremiah （xlvi； 11） refers to the virgin daughter of Egypt； who should in
vain use many medicines。 Herodotus tells that Darius had at his court
certain Egyptians； whom he reckoned the best skilled physicians in all the
world； and he makes the interesting statement that： 〃Medicine is practiced
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among them on a plan of separation； each physician treats a single
disorder； and no more： thus the country swarms with medical practitioners；
some under taking to cure diseases of the eye； others of the head； others
again of the teeth； others of the intestines； and some those which are not
local。〃＇12＇
＇12＇ The History of Herodotus； Blakesley's ed。； Bk。 II； 84。
A remarkable statement is made by Pliny； in the discussion upon the
use of radishes； which are said to cure a 〃Phthisicke；〃 or ulcer of the
lungs〃proofe whereof was found and seen in AEgypt by occasion that
the KK。 there； caused dead bodies to be cut up； and anatomies to be made；
for to search out the maladies whereof men died。〃＇13＇
＇13 Pliny； Holland's translation； Bk。 XIX； Chap。 V； Sect。 26。
The study of the anatomy of mummies has thrown a very interesting
light upon the diseases of the ancient Egyptians； one of the most prevalent
of which appears to have been osteo…arthritis。 This has been studied by
Elliot Smith； Wood Jones； Ruffer and Rietti。 The majority of the lesions
appear to have been the common osteo…arthritis； which involved not only
the men； but many of the pet animals kept in the temples。 In a much higher
proportion apparently than in modern days； the spinal column was
involved。 It is interesting to note that the 〃determinative〃 of old age in
hieroglyphic writing is the picture of a man afflicted with arthritis
deformans。 Evidences of tuberculosis； rickets and syphilis； according to
these authors； have not been found。
A study of the internal organs has been made by Ruffer； who has
shown that arterio…sclerosis with calcification was a common disease 8500
years ago； and he holds that it could not have been associated with hard
work or alcohol； for the ancient Egyptians did not drink spirits； and they
had practically the same hours of work as modern Egyptians； with every
seventh day free。
ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN MEDICINE
OF equally great importance in the evolution of medicine was the
practically contemporary civilization in Mesopotamia。 Science here
reached a much higher stage then in the valley of the Nile。 An elaborate
scheme of the universe was devised； a system growing out of the Divine
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Will； and a recognition for the first time of a law guiding and controlling
heaven and earth alike。 Here； too； we find medicine ancillary to religion。
Disease was due to evil spirits or demons。 〃These 'demons'invisible to
the naked eye were the precursors of the modern 'germs' and 'microbes；'
while the incantations recited by the priests are the early equivalents of the
physician's prescriptions。 There were different incantations for different
diseases； and they were as mysterious to the masses as are the mystic
formulas of the modern physician to the bewildered； yet trusting； patient。
Indeed； their mysterious character added to the power supposed to reside
in the incantations for driving the demons away。 Medicinal remedies
accompanied the recital of the incantations； but despite the considerable
progress made by such nations of hoary antiquity as the Egyptians and
Babylonians in the diagnosis and treatment of common diseases； leading
in time to the development of an extensive pharmacology； so long as the
cure of disease rested with the priests； the recital of sacred formulas；
together with rites that may be conveniently grouped under the head of
sympathetic magic； was regarded as equally essential with the taking of
the prescribed remedies。〃＇14＇
＇14＇ Morris Jastrow： The Liver in Antiquity and the Beginnings of
Anatomy。 Transactions College of Physicians； Philadelphia； 1907； 3。 s。；
XXIX； 117…138。
Three points of interest may be referred to in connection with
Babylonian medicine。 Our first recorded observations on anatomy are in
connection with the art of divination the study of the future by the
interpretation of certain signs。 The student recognized two divisions of
divination the involuntary； dealing with the interpretation of signs forced
upon our attention； such as the phenomena of the heavens； dreams； etc。；
and voluntary divination； the seeking of signs； more particularly through
the inspection of sacrificial animals。 This method reached an extraordinary
development among the Babylonians； and the cult spread to the Etruscans；
Hebrews； and later to the Greeks and Romans。
Of all the organs inspected in a sacrificial animal the liver； from its
size； position and richness in blood； impressed the early observers as the
most important of the body。 Probably on account of the richness in blood it
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came to be regarded as the seat of lifeindeed； the seat of the soul。 From
this important position the liver was not dislodged for many centuries； and
in the Galenic physiology it shared with the heart and the brain in the
triple control of the natural； animal and vital spirits。 Many expressions in
literature indicate how persistent was this belief。 Among the Babylonians；
the word 〃liver〃 was used in hymns and other compositions precisely as
we use the word 〃heart；〃 and Jastrow gives a number of illustrations from
Hebrew； Greek and Latin sources illustrating this usage。
The belief arose that through the inspection of this important organ in
the sacrificial animal the course of future events could be predicted。 〃The
life or soul； as the seat of life； in the sacrificial anim
