the evolution of modern medicine(ÏÖ´úÒ½Ò©µÄÑݱä)-µÚ21ÕÂ
°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡
Avicenna£»¡¡¡¡¡¡Galen¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡Averroes¡¡¡¡¡¡were¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡medical¡¡¡¡¡¡members¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡group¡£¡¡
Dante£»¡¡Inferno£»¡¡canto¡¡iv¡£¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Dissectionalready¡¡¡¡¡¡practiced¡¡¡¡¡¡by¡¡¡¡¡¡Alcmaeon£»¡¡¡¡¡¡Democritus£»¡¡¡¡¡¡Diogenes¡¡
and¡¡otherswas¡¡conducted¡¡on¡¡a¡¡large¡¡scale£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡human¡¡body¡¡was¡¡still¡¡
taboo¡£¡¡Aristotle¡¡confesses¡¡that¡¡the¡¡¡¨inward¡¡parts¡¡of¡¡man¡¡are¡¡known¡¡least¡¡of¡¡
all£»¡¨¡¡and¡¡he¡¡had¡¡never¡¡seen¡¡the¡¡human¡¡kidneys¡¡or¡¡uterus¡£¡¡In¡¡his¡¡physiology£»¡¡
I¡¡¡¡can¡¡¡¡¡¡refer¡¡¡¡to¡¡¡¡¡¡but¡¡¡¡¡¡one¡¡¡¡pointthe¡¡¡¡¡¡pivotal¡¡question¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡heart¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡¡¡¡¡blood¡¡
vessels¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡To¡¡¡¡¡¡Aristotle¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡heart¡¡¡¡¡¡was¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡central¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡organ¡¡¡¡¡¡controlling¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡
circulation£»¡¡the¡¡seat¡¡of¡¡vitality£»¡¡the¡¡source¡¡of¡¡the¡¡blood£»¡¡the¡¡place¡¡in¡¡which¡¡
it¡¡¡¡¡¡received¡¡¡¡¡¡its¡¡¡¡¡¡final¡¡¡¡¡¡elaboration¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡¡¡¡¡impregnation¡¡¡¡¡¡with¡¡¡¡¡¡animal¡¡¡¡¡¡heat¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡The¡¡
blood¡¡was¡¡contained¡¡in¡¡the¡¡heart¡¡and¡¡vessels¡¡as¡¡in¡¡a¡¡vasehence¡¡the¡¡use¡¡of¡¡
the¡¡term¡¡¡¨vessel¡£¡¨¡¡¡¨From¡¡the¡¡heart¡¡the¡¡blood¡vessels¡¡extend¡¡throughout¡¡the¡¡
body¡¡as¡¡in¡¡the¡¡anatomical¡¡diagrams¡¡which¡¡are¡¡represented¡¡on¡¡the¡¡walls£»¡¡for¡¡
the¡¡parts¡¡lie¡¡¡¡¡¡round¡¡these¡¡because¡¡¡¡¡¡they¡¡are¡¡formed¡¡¡¡¡¡out¡¡of¡¡them¡£¡¨£§29£§¡¡The¡¡
nutriment¡¡oozes¡¡through¡¡the¡¡blood¡¡vessels¡¡and¡¡the¡¡passages¡¡in¡¡each¡¡of¡¡the¡¡
parts¡¡¡¨like¡¡water¡¡in¡¡unbaked¡¡pottery¡£¡¨¡¡He¡¡did¡¡not¡¡recognize¡¡any¡¡distinction¡¡
between¡¡arteries¡¡and¡¡veins£»¡¡calling¡¡both¡¡plebes¡¡£¨Littre£©£»¡¡the¡¡vena¡¡cave¡¡is¡¡
the¡¡great¡¡vessel£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡aorta¡¡the¡¡smaller£»¡¡but¡¡both¡¡contain¡¡blood¡£¡¡He¡¡did¡¡
not¡¡¡¡¡¡use¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡word¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¨arteria¡¨¡¡¡¡¡¡£¨arthria£©¡¡¡¡¡¡for¡¡¡¡¡¡either¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡There¡¡¡¡¡¡was¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡no¡¡
movement¡¡¡¡¡¡from¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡heart¡¡¡¡¡¡to¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡vessels¡¡¡¡¡¡but¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡blood¡¡¡¡¡¡was¡¡¡¡¡¡incessantly¡¡
drawn¡¡upon¡¡by¡¡the¡¡substance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡body¡¡and¡¡as¡¡unceasingly¡¡renewed¡¡by¡¡
absorption¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡products¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡digestion£»the¡¡¡¡¡¡mesenteric¡¡¡¡¡¡vessels¡¡¡¡¡¡taking¡¡¡¡¡¡up¡¡
nutriment¡¡very¡¡much¡¡as¡¡the¡¡plants¡¡take¡¡theirs¡¡by¡¡the¡¡roots¡¡from¡¡the¡¡soil¡£¡¡
From¡¡the¡¡lungs¡¡was¡¡absorbed¡¡the¡¡pneuma£»¡¡or¡¡spiritus£»¡¡which¡¡was¡¡conveyed¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡59¡¡
¡¡¡Page¡¡60¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡THE¡¡EVOLUTION¡¡OF¡¡MODERN¡¡MEDICINE¡¡
to¡¡the¡¡heart¡¡by¡¡the¡¡pulmonary¡¡vesselsone¡¡to¡¡the¡¡right£»¡¡and¡¡one¡¡to¡¡the¡¡left¡¡
side¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡These¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡vessels¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡in¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡lungs£»¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¨through¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡mutual¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡contact¡¨¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡with¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡
branches¡¡of¡¡the¡¡trachea£»¡¡took¡¡in¡¡the¡¡pneuma¡£¡¡A¡¡point¡¡of¡¡interest¡¡is¡¡that¡¡the¡¡
windpipe£»or¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡trachea£»¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡is¡¡¡¡¡¡called¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¨arteria£»¡¨¡¡¡¡¡¡both¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡by¡¡¡¡¡¡Aristotle¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡by¡¡
Hippocrates¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡£¨¡¨Anatomy£»¡¨¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Littre£»¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡VIII£»¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡539£©¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡It¡¡¡¡¡¡was¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡air¡tube£»¡¡
disseminating¡¡the¡¡breath¡¡through¡¡the¡¡lungs¡£¡¡We¡¡shall¡¡see¡¡in¡¡a¡¡few¡¡minutes¡¡
how¡¡the¡¡term¡¡came¡¡¡¡¡¡to¡¡be¡¡¡¡¡¡applied¡¡¡¡¡¡to¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡arteries£»¡¡as¡¡¡¡¡¡we¡¡know¡¡¡¡them¡£¡¡The¡¡
pulsation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡heart¡¡and¡¡arteries¡¡was¡¡regarded¡¡by¡¡Aristotle¡¡as¡¡a¡¡sort¡¡of¡¡
ebullition¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡liquids¡¡were¡¡inflated¡¡by¡¡the¡¡vital¡¡or¡¡innate¡¡heat£»¡¡the¡¡
fires¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡which¡¡¡¡¡¡were¡¡¡¡¡¡cooled¡¡¡¡¡¡by¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡pneuma¡¡¡¡¡¡taken¡¡¡¡¡¡in¡¡¡¡¡¡by¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡lungs¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡
carried¡¡to¡¡the¡¡heart¡¡by¡¡the¡¡pulmonary¡¡vessels¡£¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡£§29£§¡¡De¡¡Generatione¡¡Animalium£»¡¡Oxford¡¡translation£»¡¡Bk¡£¡¡II£»¡¡Chap¡£¡¡6£»¡¡
Works¡¡V£»¡¡743¡¡a¡£¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡In¡¡Vol¡£¡¡IV¡¡of¡¡Gomperz'¡¡¡¨Greek¡¡Thinkers£»¡¨¡¡you¡¡will¡¡find¡¡an¡¡admirable¡¡
discussion¡¡on¡¡Aristotle¡¡as¡¡an¡¡investigator¡¡of¡¡nature£»¡¡and¡¡those¡¡of¡¡you¡¡who¡¡
wish¡¡to¡¡study¡¡his¡¡natural¡¡history¡¡works¡¡more¡¡closely¡¡may¡¡do¡¡so¡¡easilyin¡¡
the¡¡¡¡¡¡new¡¡¡¡¡¡translation¡¡¡¡¡¡which¡¡¡¡¡¡is¡¡¡¡¡¡in¡¡¡¡¡¡process¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡publication¡¡¡¡¡¡by¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡Clarendon¡¡
Press£»¡¡Oxford¡£¡¡At¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡end¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡chapter¡¡¡¡¡¨De¡¡¡¡Respiratione¡¨in¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¨Parva¡¡
Naturalia¡¨¡¡¡¡¡¡£¨Oxford¡¡¡¡¡¡edition£»¡¡¡¡¡¡1908£©£»¡¡¡¡¡¡we¡¡¡¡¡¡have¡¡¡¡¡¡Aristotle's¡¡¡¡¡¡attitude¡¡¡¡¡¡towards¡¡
medicine¡¡expressed¡¡in¡¡a¡¡way¡¡worthy¡¡of¡¡a¡¡son¡¡of¡¡the¡¡profession£º¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¨But¡¡¡¡¡¡health¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡¡¡¡¡disease¡¡¡¡¡¡also¡¡¡¡¡¡claim¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡attention¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡scientist£»¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡
not¡¡¡¡¡¡merely¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡physician£»¡¡¡¡¡¡in¡¡¡¡¡¡so¡¡¡¡¡¡far¡¡¡¡¡¡as¡¡¡¡¡¡an¡¡¡¡¡¡account¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡their¡¡¡¡¡¡causes¡¡¡¡¡¡is¡¡
concerned¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡¡¡¡¡extent¡¡¡¡¡¡to¡¡¡¡¡¡which¡¡¡¡¡¡these¡¡¡¡¡¡two¡¡¡¡¡¡differ¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡¡¡¡¡investigate¡¡¡¡¡¡diverse¡¡
provinces¡¡must¡¡not¡¡escape¡¡us£»¡¡since¡¡facts¡¡show¡¡that¡¡their¡¡inquiries¡¡are£»¡¡at¡¡
least¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡to¡¡¡¡a¡¡¡¡certain¡¡¡¡¡¡extent£»¡¡¡¡¡¡conterminous¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡For¡¡¡¡¡¡physicians¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡culture¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡
refinement¡¡make¡¡some¡¡mention¡¡of¡¡natural¡¡science£»and¡¡claim¡¡to¡¡derive¡¡their¡¡
principles¡¡from¡¡it£»¡¡while¡¡the¡¡most¡¡accomplished¡¡investigators¡¡into¡¡nature¡¡
generally¡¡¡¡¡¡push¡¡¡¡¡¡their¡¡¡¡¡¡studies¡¡¡¡¡¡so¡¡¡¡¡¡far¡¡¡¡¡¡as¡¡¡¡¡¡to¡¡¡¡¡¡conclude¡¡¡¡¡¡with¡¡¡¡¡¡an¡¡¡¡¡¡account¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡
medical¡¡principles¡£¡¨¡¡£¨Works£»¡¡III£»480¡¡b¡££©¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Theophrastus£»¡¡¡¡¡¡a¡¡¡¡¡¡student¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡Aristotle¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡¡¡¡¡his¡¡¡¡¡¡successor£»¡¡¡¡¡¡created¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡
science¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡botany¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡¡¡¡¡made¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡possible¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡pharmacologists¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡a¡¡¡¡few¡¡
centuries¡¡later¡£¡¡Some¡¡of¡¡you¡¡doubtless¡¡know¡¡him¡¡in¡¡another¡¡guiseas¡¡the¡¡
author¡¡of¡¡the¡¡golden¡¡booklet¡¡on¡¡¡¨Characters£»¡¨¡¡in¡¡which¡¡¡¨the¡¡most¡¡eminent¡¡
botanist¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡antiquity¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡observes¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡doings¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡men¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡with¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡keen¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡60¡¡
¡¡¡Page¡¡61¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡THE¡¡EVOLUTION¡¡OF¡¡MODERN¡¡MEDICINE¡¡
unerring¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡vision¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡a¡¡¡¡natural¡¡¡¡¡¡historian¡¨¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡£¨Gomperz£©¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡In¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡Hippocratic¡¡
writings£»¡¡there¡¡are¡¡mentioned¡¡236¡¡plants£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡botany¡¡of¡¡Theophrastus£»¡¡
455¡£¡¡To¡¡one¡¡trait¡¡of¡¡master¡¡and¡¡pupil¡¡I¡¡must¡¡referthe¡¡human¡¡feeling£»¡¡not¡¡
alone¡¡of¡¡man¡¡for¡¡man£»¡¡but¡¡a¡¡sympathy¡¡that¡¡even¡¡claims¡¡kinship¡¡with¡¡the¡¡
animal¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡world¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¨The¡¡¡¡¡¡spirit¡¡¡¡with¡¡¡¡¡¡which¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡he¡¡¡¡¡¡£¨Theophrastus£©¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡regarded¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡
animal¡¡world¡¡found¡¡no¡¡second¡¡expression¡¡till¡¡the¡¡present¡¡age¡¨¡¡£¨Gomperz£©¡£¡¡
Halliday£»¡¡¡¡¡¡however£»makes¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡statement¡¡¡¡¡¡that¡¡¡¡¡¡Porphyry£§30£§¡¡¡¡¡¡goes¡¡¡¡¡¡as¡¡¡¡¡¡far¡¡¡¡¡¡as¡¡
any¡¡modern¡¡humanitarian¡¡in¡¡preaching¡¡our¡¡duty¡¡towards¡¡animals¡£¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡£§30£§¡¡¡¡¡¡W¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡R¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡Halliday£º¡¡¡¡¡¡Greek¡¡¡¡¡¡Divination£»¡¡¡¡¡¡London£»¡¡¡¡¡¡Macmillan¡¡¡¡¡¡&¡¡¡¡¡¡Co¡££»¡¡
1913¡£¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡ALEXANDRIAN¡¡SCHOOL¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡FROM¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡death¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡Hippocrates¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡about¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡year¡¡¡¡¡¡375¡¡¡¡¡¡B¡£C¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡till¡¡¡¡the¡¡
founding¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Alexandrian¡¡School£»¡¡the¡¡physicians¡¡were¡¡engrossed¡¡largely¡¡
in¡¡speculative¡¡views£»¡¡and¡¡not¡¡much¡¡real¡¡progress¡¡was¡¡made£»¡¡except¡¡in¡¡the¡¡
matter¡¡of¡¡elaborating¡¡the¡¡humoral¡¡pathology¡£¡¡Only¡¡three¡¡or¡¡four¡¡men¡¡of¡¡the¡¡
first¡¡rank¡¡stand¡¡out¡¡in¡¡this¡¡period£º¡¡Diocles¡¡the¡¡Carystian£»¡¡¡¨both¡¡in¡¡time¡¡and¡¡
reputation¡¡next¡¡and¡¡second¡¡to¡¡Hippocrates¡¨¡¡£¨Pliny£©£»¡¡a¡¡keen¡¡anatomist¡¡and¡¡
an¡¡encyclopaedic¡¡writer£»¡¡but¡¡only¡¡scanty¡¡fragments¡¡of¡¡his¡¡work¡¡remain¡£¡¡In¡¡
some¡¡¡¡¡¡ways¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡most¡¡¡¡¡¡important¡¡¡¡¡¡member¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡this¡¡¡¡¡¡group¡¡¡¡¡¡was¡¡¡¡¡¡Praxagoras£»¡¡¡¡¡¡a¡¡
native¡¡of¡¡Cos£»¡¡about¡¡340¡¡B¡£C¡£¡¡Aristotle£»¡¡you¡¡remember£»¡¡made¡¡no¡¡essential¡¡
distinction¡¡between¡¡¡¡¡¡arteries¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡¡¡¡¡veins£»¡¡¡¡¡¡both¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡which¡¡¡¡¡¡he¡¡¡¡¡¡held¡¡¡¡¡¡to¡¡¡¡¡¡contain¡¡
blood£º¡¡Praxagoras¡¡recognized¡¡that¡¡the¡¡pulsation¡¡was¡¡only¡¡in¡¡the¡¡arteries£»¡¡
and¡¡maintained¡¡that¡¡only¡¡the¡¡veins¡¡contained¡¡blood£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡arteries¡¡air¡£¡¡As¡¡
a¡¡rule¡¡the¡¡arteries¡¡are¡¡empty¡¡after¡¡death£»¡¡and¡¡Praxagoras¡¡believed¡¡that¡¡they¡¡
were¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡filled¡¡¡¡¡¡with¡¡¡¡¡¡an¡¡¡¡¡¡aeriform¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡fluid£»¡¡¡¡a¡¡¡¡¡¡sort¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡pneuma£»¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡which¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡was¡¡
responsible¡¡for¡¡their¡¡pulsation¡£¡¡The¡¡word¡¡arteria£»¡¡which¡¡had¡¡already¡¡been¡¡
applied¡¡to¡¡the¡¡trachea£»¡¡as¡¡an¡¡air¡containing¡¡tube£»¡¡was¡¡then¡¡attached¡¡to¡¡the¡¡
arteries£»¡¡¡¡¡¡on¡¡¡¡¡¡account¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡rough¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡¡¡¡¡uneven¡¡¡¡¡¡character¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡its¡¡¡¡¡¡walls¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡
trachea¡¡was¡¡then¡¡called¡¡the¡¡arteria¡¡tracheia£»¡¡or¡¡the¡¡rough¡¡air¡tube¡££§31a£§¡¡We¡¡
call¡¡¡¡¡¡it¡¡¡¡¡¡simply¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡trachea£»¡¡¡¡¡¡but¡¡¡¡¡¡in¡¡¡¡¡¡French¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡word¡¡¡¡¡¡trachee¡artere¡¡¡¡¡¡is¡¡¡¡¡¡still¡¡
used¡£¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡£§31a£§¡¡Galen£º¡¡De¡¡usu¡¡partium£»¡¡VII£»¡¡Chaps¡£¡¡8¡9¡£¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Praxagoras¡¡was¡¡one¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡the¡¡first¡¡¡¡¡¡to¡¡make¡¡an¡¡¡¡¡¡exhaustive¡¡study¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡61¡¡
¡¡¡Page¡¡62¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡THE¡¡EVOLUTION¡¡OF¡¡MODERN¡¡MEDICINE¡¡
pulse£»¡¡¡¡¡¡and¡¡¡¡¡¡he¡¡¡¡¡¡must¡¡¡¡¡¡have¡¡¡¡¡¡been¡¡¡¡¡¡a¡¡¡¡¡¡man¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡considerable¡¡¡¡¡¡clinical¡¡¡¡¡¡acumen£»as¡¡
well¡¡as¡¡boldness£»¡¡to¡¡recommend¡¡in¡¡obstruction¡¡of¡¡the¡¡bowels¡¡the¡¡opening¡¡
of¡¡the¡¡abdomen£»¡¡removal¡¡of¡¡the¡¡obstructed¡¡portion¡¡and¡¡uniting¡¡the¡¡ends¡¡of¡¡
the¡¡intestine¡¡by¡¡sutures¡£¡¡
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡After¡¡the¡¡death¡¡of¡¡Alexander£»¡¡Egypt¡¡fell¡¡into¡¡the¡¡hands¡¡of¡¡his¡¡famous¡¡
general£»¡¡¡¡¡¡Ptolemy£»¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡under¡¡¡¡¡¡whose¡¡¡¡¡¡care¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡city¡¡¡¡¡¡became¡¡¡¡¡¡one¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡¡¡most¡¡
important¡¡on¡¡the¡¡¡¡Mediterranean¡£¡¡¡¡