the evolution of modern medicine(现代医药的演变)-第14章
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medical schools as early as the fifth century B。C。 The most famous of
these physician philosophers was Pythagoras； whose life and work had an
extraordinary influence upon medicine； particularly in connection with his
theory of numbers； and the importance of critical days。 His discovery of
the dependence of the pitch of sound on the length of the vibrating chord
is one of the most fundamental in acoustics。 Among the members of the
school which he founded at Crotona were many physicians。 who carried
his views far and wide throughout Magna Graecia。 Nothing in his teaching
dominated medicine so much as the doctrine of numbers； the sacredness of
which seems to have had an enduring fascination for the medical mind。
Many of the common diseases； such as malaria； or typhus； terminating
abruptly on special days； favored this belief。 How dominant it became and
how persistent you may judge from the literature upon critical days； which
is rich to the middle of the eighteenth century。
One member of the Crotonian school； Alcmaeon； achieved great
distinction in both anatomy and physiology。 He first recognized the brain
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as the organ of the mind； and made careful dissections of the nerves；
which he traced to the brain。 He described the optic nerves and the
Eustachian tubes； made correct observations upon vision； and refuted the
common view that the sperma came from the spinal cord。 He suggested
the definition of health as the maintenance of equilibrium； or an
〃isonomy〃 in the material qualities of the body。 Of all the South Italian
physicians of this period； the personality of none stands out in stronger
outlines than that of Empedocles of Agrigentumphysician； physiologist；
religious teacher； politician and poet。 A wonder…worker； also； and magician；
he was acclaimed in the cities as an immortal god by countless thousands
desiring oracles or begging the word of healing。 That he was a keen
student of nature is witnessed by many recorded observations in anatomy
and physiology； he reasoned that sensations travel by definite paths to the
brain。 But our attention must be confined to his introduction of the theory
of the four elementsfire； air； earth and waterof which； in varying
quantities； all bodies were made up。 Health depended upon the due
equilibrium of these primitive substances； disease was their disturbance。
Corresponding to those were the four essential qualities of heat and cold；
moisture and dryness； and upon this four…fold division was engrafted by
the later physicians the doctrine of the humors which； from the days of
Hippocrates almost to our own； dominated medicine。 All sorts of magical
powers were attributed to Empedocles。 The story of Pantheia whom he
called back to life after a thirty days' trance has long clung in the
imagination。 You remember how Matthew Arnold describes him in the
well…known poem； 〃Empedocles on Etna〃
But his power Swells with the swelling evil of this time； And holds
men mute to see where it will rise。 He could stay swift diseases in old days；
Chain madmen by the music of his lyre； Cleanse to sweet airs the breath of
poisonous streams； And in the mountain…chinks inter the winds。 This he
could do of old＇5＇
a quotation which will give you an idea of some of the powers
attributed to this wonder…working physician。
＇5＇ Poetical Works of Matthew Arnold； Macmillan & Co。； 1898； p。
440。
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But of no one of the men of this remarkable circle have we such
definite information as of the Crotonian physician Democedes； whose
story is given at length by Herodotus； and his story has also the great
importance of showing that； even at this early period； a well…devised
scheme of public medical service existed in the Greek cities。 It dates from
the second half of the sixth century B。C。fully two generations before
Hippocrates。 A Crotonian； Democedes by name； was found among the
slaves of Oroetes。 Of his fame as a physician someone had heard and he
was called in to treat the dislocated ankle of King Darius。 The wily Greek；
longing for his home； feared that if he confessed to a knowledge of
medicine there would be no chance of escape； but under threat of torture
he undertook a treatment which proved successful。 Then Herodotus tells
his storyhow； ill treated at home in Crotona； Democedes went to AEgina；
where he set up as a physician and in the second year the State of AEgina
hired his services at the price of a talent。 In the third year； the Athenians
engaged him at 100 minae； and in the fourth； Polycrates of Samos at two
talents。 Democedes shared the misfortunes of Polycrates and was taken
prisoner by Oroetes。 Then Herodotus tells how he cured Atossa； the
daughter of Cyrus and wife of Darius； of a severe abscess of the breast； but
on condition that she help him to escape； and she induced her husband to
send an expedition of exploration to Greece under the guidance of
Democedes； but with the instructions at all costs to bring back the much
prized physician。 From Tarentum； Democedes escaped to his native city；
but the Persians followed him； and it was with the greatest difficulty that
he escaped from their hands。 Deprived of their guide； the Persians gave up
the expedition and sailed for Asia。 In palliation of his flight； Democedes
sent a message to Darius that he was engaged to the daughter of Milo； the
wrestler； who was in high repute with the King。＇6＇
＇6＇ The well…known editor of Herodotus； R。 W。 Macan； Master of
University College； Oxford； in his Hellenikon。 A Sheaf of Sonnets after
Herodotus （Oxford； 1898） has included a poem which may be quoted in
connection with this incident：
NOSTALGY Atossa； child of Cyrus king of kings； healed by Greek
science of a morbid breast； gave lord Dareios neither love nor rest till he
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fulfilled her vain imaginings。 〃Sir； show our Persian folk your sceptre's
wings！ Enlarge my sire's and brother's large bequest。 This learned Greek
shall guide your galleys west； and Dorian slave…girls grace our
banquetings。〃 So said she； taught of that o'er…artful man； the Italiote
captive； Kroton's Demokede； who recked not what of maladies began； nor
who in Asia and in Greece might bleed； if heso writes the guileless
Thurian regained his home； and freedom of the Mede。
Plato has several references to these state physicians； who were
evidently elected by a public assembly： 〃When the assembly meets to elect
a physician；〃 and the office was yearly； for in 〃The Statesman〃 we find the
following：＇7＇ 〃When the year of office has expired； the pilot； or physician
has to come before a court of review〃 to answer any
