the idea of justice in political economy-第3章

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　　　　If　we　now　try　to　explain　somewhat　more　fully　the
psychological　processes　in　question；　the　first　step　always　seems
to　be　to　group　in　our　conceptions　a　number　of　men　into　bodies　of
moral　community。　These　bodies　are　then　compared　and　tested
according　to　their　qualities　and　actions。　The　equalities　are
searched　for　and　found　by　the　judgment；　the　inequalities　and
their　degrees　are　tried　by　the　estimating　and　valuing　sense。　It
is　in　the　realm　of　the　feelings　in　which　all　the　final　decisions
on　this　most　important　point　are　reached。　All　feelings　finally
resolve　themselves　into　an　adjudging　or　disparaging；　into　an
estimation　and　a　sensation　of　that　which　furthers　and　that　which
impedes　us；　they　are　decisions　on　the　worth　of　men　and　things。
And　upon　this　now　follows　finally　the　simple　logical　conclusion：
the　persons　whom　I　am　to　conceive　as　a　moral　community　must；　as
far　as　human　intervention　reaches；　be　treated　equally　in　the
measure　of　their　equality；　unequally　in　the　measure　of　their
inequality。
　　　　The　groups　of　persons　into　which　our　conceptions　necessarily
classify　mankind　are　manifold。　The　members　of　the　family　and　the
tribe；　the　bellows　of　a　society　and　a　community；　the　citizens　of
a　State　and　of　a　federation；　the　members　of　a　church　and　of　a
race；　finally　all　humanity　in　a　certain　sense　can　be　so　grouped；
but　only　in　so　far　as　they　form　a　moral　community　and　pursue
certain　common　ends。　Whosoever　stands　without　the　group　is
foreign　to　the　comparison；　is　not　comprised　in　the　judgment　of
what　is　just。　Hence　a　barbarian　does　not　think　it　unjust　to　kill
the　stranger；　only　the　conception　of　a　moral　community　between
all　nations　and　all　men　prevents　this。　Likewise　it　does　not　seem
to　me　unjust　that　an　Englishman　pays　double　the　taxes　paid　by　a
German　of　equal　income。　With　the　variety　of　different　human
purposes　and　communities　the　same　man　appears　at　one　time　like
his　fellows；　at　another　unlike。　In　a　club　of　any　kind　which
claims　but　a　small　fraction　of　our　interest；　we　see　no　injustice
in　a　per　capita　assessment　which　we　would　consider　unbearable　in
a　State　or　community。　It　accords　with　our　idea　of　justice　that
all　young　and　vigorous　men　have　an　equal　duty　in　the　defence　of
our　country；　whereas　for　other　public　and　social　purposes　they
show　the　greatest　dissimilarities；　and　are　accordingly　treated
differently。
　　　　The　judgment　of　equality　or　inequality　is；　therefore；　always
a　very　complicated　one。　Not　only　must　the　human　qualities　and
deeds　be　considered　per　se；　but　also　in　their　relations　to　the
aims　of　human　society。　In　one　grouping　and　classification　we　have
in　view　only　some　one　certain　well…defined　quality　of　mankind；　in
another　we　attempt　a　weighing　of　all　qualities；　we　seek　the
average　human　being。　A　shipwrecked　party；　which　has　saved　itself
in　a　boat　too　small　to　carry　all；　will　be　apt　to　value　all　their
companions　equally　in　the　question　of　life　and　death；　and　cast
lots　equally　for　all。　But　the　provisions　which　have　been　saved
will　be　distributed　according　to　the　various　needs；　i。e。；　the
seaman　at　the　oar　will　be　given　twice　as　much　as　the
three…year…old　child。　In　a　tribe　of　warlike　nomads　the　bravest
fighter；　in　the　jockey　club　the　best　rider；　is　fairly　given　a
preference　which　would　appear　unjust　in　other　groups　of　men。　Even
in　the　family　and　in　the　State　a　certain　kind　only　of　qualities
or　actions　often　forms　the　basis　of　judgment。　The　judge　on　the
bench　cares　only　for　certain　wrongful　acts；　the　　father　who
wishes　to　bequeath　the　same　to　each　child；　because　he　thinks　this
just；　will　not　deny　their　dissimilarity　in　many　respects。　The
State；　however；　will　distribute　honors　and　dignities　in　the
nearest　possible　relation　to　the　average　of　qualities　most
important　to　it。　Every　election；　every　promotion　is　governed　by
an　average　of　composite　impressions。　The　judgment　upon　a　just　or
unjust　distribution　of　wealth　and　income　will　always　rest　on　a
similar　basis。
　　　　Whether　it　be　a　single　quality　or　action；　or　a　sum　of　them；
those　which　are　considered　are　such　as　relate　to　the　aims　and
ends　of　the　community。　And　they　may　naturally　be　of　the　greatest
variety；　may　include；　for　instance；　even　physical　strength　or
beauty。　In　an　athletic　club　it　seems　just　to　give　a　prize　to　the
strongest　man；　in　tableaux　vivants　to　favor　a　beautiful　woman。　As
a　rule；　however；　in　social　bodies　of　a　higher　order　those
qualities　are　to　be　considered　which；　like　virtue　and　talent；　are
of　the　greatest　service　to　them；　which　manifest　themselves　in
actions　advantageous　to　the　community。　Often　there　are　very
heterogeneous　qualities　to　be　compared；　as　the　aims　of　the　great
moral　communities；　especially　of　the　State；　are　the　most　various。
The　question　can　arise；　is　the　brave　general　or　the　great
statesman；　the　great　painter　or　the　great　singer；　of　greater
Universal　value？　The　decision　is　given　by　public　sentiment
according　to　that　classification　of　purposes　which　appears　at　the
moment　to　be　the　correct　one；　and　following　it　we　find　a　verdict
of　the　public　which　declares　the　salary　of　a　general；　of　a
secretary　of　state　or　of　a　singer　to　be　just　or　unjust。
　　　　Quite　as　difficult　as　the　comparison　of　different　qualities
or　acts　is　the　valuation　of　the　inequalities　in　the　same　sphere
of　human　action。　That　the　statesman　deserves　a　higher　salary　than
his　secretary；　that　the　head　of　a　great　firm　earns　more　than　his
cashier；　and　the　latter　more　than　the　youngest　clerk；　that　the
designer　in　a　factory　is　more　important　than　the　porter　　in　all
this；　public　sentiment　and　valuation　agree。　But　when　the　grades
of　inequality　are　to　be　measured　and　to　be　expressed　in　figures；
which　is　indispensable　in　all　the　practical　questions；　there　will
be　many　differences　of　opinion；　and　from　this　point　of　view
indeed　the　opinion　might　be　upheld　that　the　psychological
judgments　which　form　the　foundations　of　the　conceptions　of　the
just　are　always　a　chaos　without　unity　and　clearness。　The
objection　which　we　so　often　meet　on　the　field　of　aesthetic
judgment　seems　obvious；　that　there　is　no　general　judgment；　that
all　is　a　matter　of　individual　taste；　that　mere　individual
processes　of　feeling　are　in　question；　which　are　immeasurably
entangled；　and　which　a　fool　alone　could　regard　as　a　basis　of
public　affairs　and　institutions。
　　　　This　would　in　fact　be　true；　if　the　individual　thoughts　and
sentiments　of　men　were；　indeed；　only　the　product　of　independent
and　isolated　individuals。　But　every　disposition　of　mind；　every
word；　every　idea；　every　conception；　more　profoundly　examined；　is
the　result　not　of　an　individual；　but　of　a　social　process。　The
greatest　genius　even　thinks　and　feels　as　a　member　of　the
community；　ninety　per　cent　of　what　he　possesses　is　a　trust
conveyed　to　him　by　forefathers；　teachers；　fellow…creatures；　to　be
cherished　and　bequeathed　to　posterity。　The　majority　of　everyday
persons　are　little　more　than　indifferent　vessels　into　which　flow
the　feelings　and　thoughts　of　preceding　and　contemporary　millions。
Language　is　a　product　of　society。　By　means　of　the　spoken　word；
Herbart　says；　thought　and　feeling　pass　over　into　the　mind　of
another。　There　they　originate　new　fillings　and　thoughts；　which
forthwith　cross　the　same　bridge；　to　enrich　the　ideas　of　the
first。　Thus　it　happens　that　the　smallest　part　of　our　thoughts
originates　in　ourselves；　and　that　we　draw；　as　it　were；　from　a
public　storehouse；　and　participate　in　a　universal　generation　of
thoughts　to　which　each　individual　makes　only　a　comparatively
scanty　contribution。
　　　　Supposing　for　the　moment　that　the　feelings　on　which　the
estimating　judgments　of　what　is　just　are　founded；　remain　wholly
in　the　obscure　realm　of　mental　temperaments；　even　in　this　stage
they　are　not　a　psychological　chaos；　but　a　rhythmic　movement　of
masses。　And　the　more　they　rise　to　judgments　and　standards　of
valuation；　the　more　the　mental　temperaments　are　condensed　through
the　medium　of　public　discussion；　to　decisions　which　possess
distinct　characteristics　and　criteria；　the　more　we　have　before　us
mass…judgments　which　are　not　quite　uniform；　it　is　true；　but　still
classed　according　to　masses；　grouped　according　to　centres　and
authorities；　and　which　are　clear；　firm　and