industrial biography-第47章

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point　a　dea　hommes　purement　speciaux；　que　l'on　devra　cette

transformation。〃E。　M。　BATAILLE；　Tr　aite　des　Machines　a　Vapeur。





Tools　have　played　a　highly　important　part　in　the　history　of

civilization。　　Without　tools　and　the　ability　to　use　them；　man　were

indeed　but　a　〃poor；　bare；　forked　animal；〃worse　clothed　than　the

birds；　worse　housed　than　the　beaver；　worse　fed　than　the　jackal。　　〃Weak

in　himself；〃　says　Carlyle；　〃and　of　small　stature；　he　stands　on　a

basis；　at　most　for　the　flattest…soled；　of　some　half　square　foot；

insecurely　enough；　has　to　straddle　out　his　legs；　Jest　the　very　wind

supplant　him。　　Feeblest　of　bipeds！　　Three　quintals　are　a　crushing　load

for　him；　the　steer　of　the　meadow　tosses　him　aloft　like　a　waste　rag。

Nevertheless　he　can　use　tools；　can　devise　tools：　　with　these　the

granite　mountain　melts　into　light　dust　before　him；　he　kneads　glowing

iron　as　if　it　were　soft　paste；　seas　are　his　smooth　highway；　winds　and

fire　his　unvarying　steeds。　　Nowhere　do　you　find　him　without　tools：　　

without　tools　he　is　nothing；　with　tools　he　is　all。〃　　His　very　first

contrivances　to　support　life　were　tools　of　the　simplest　and　rudest

construction；　and　his　latest　achievements　in　the　substitution　of

machinery　for　the　relief　of　the　human　hand　and　intellect　are　founded

on　the　use　of　tools　of　a　still　higher　order。　　Hence　it　is　not　without

good　reason　that　man　has　by　some　philosophers　been　defined　as　A

TOOL…MAKING　ANIMAL。



Tools；　like　everything　else；　had　small　beginnings。　　With　the　primitive

stone…hammer　and　chisel　very　little　could　be　done。　　The　felling　of　a

tree　would　occupy　a　workman　a　month；　unless　helped　by　the　destructive

action　of　fire。　　Dwellings　could　not　be　built；　the　soil　could　not　be

tilled；　clothes　could　not　be　fashioned　and　made；　and　the　hewing　out

of　a　boat　was　so　tedious　a　process　that　the　wood　must　have　been　far

gone　in　decay　before　it　could　be　launched。　　It　was　a　great　step　in

advance　to　discover　the　art　of　working　in　metals；　more　especially　in

steel；　one　of　the　few　metals　capable　of　taking　a　sharp　edge　and

keeping　it。　　From　the　date　of　this　discovery；　working　in　wood　and

stone　would　be　found　comparatively　easy；　and　the　results　must

speedily　have　been　felt　not　only　in　the　improvement　of　man's　daily

food；　but　in　his　domestic　and　social　condition。　　Clothing　could　then

be　made；　the　primitive　forest　could　be　cleared　and　tillage　carried

on；　abundant　fuel　could　be　obtained；　dwellings　erected；　ships　built；

temples　reared；　every　improvement　in　tools　marking　a　new　step　in　the

development　of　the　human　intellect；　and　a　further　stage　in　the

progress　of　human　civilization。



The　earliest　tools　were　of　the　simplest　possible　character；

consisting　principally　of　modifications　of　the　wedge；　such　as　the

knife；　the　shears　（formed　of　two　knives　working　on　a　joint）；　the

chisel；　and　the　axe。　　These；　with　the　primitive　hammer；　formed　the

principal　stock…in…trade　of　the　early　mechanics；　who　were

handicraftsmen　in　the　literal　sense　of　the　word。　　But　the　work　which

the　early　craftsmen　in　wood；　stone；　brass；　and　iron；　contrived　to

execute；　sufficed　to　show　how　much　expertness　in　the　handling　of

tools　will　serve　to　compensate　for　their　mechanical　imperfections。

Workmen　then　sought　rather　to　aid　muscular　strength　than　to　supersede

it；　and　mainly　to　facilitate　the　efforts　of　manual　skill。　　Another

tool　became　added　to　those　mentioned　above；　which　proved　an

additional　source　of　power　to　the　workman。　　We　mean　the　Saw；　which　was

considered　of　so　much　importance　that　its　inventor　was　honoured　with

a　place　among　the　gods　in　the　mythology　of　the　Greeks。　　This　invention

is　said　to　have　been　suggested　by　the　arrangement　of　the　teeth　in　the

jaw　of　a　serpent；　used　by　Talus　the　nephew　of　Daedalus　in　dividing　a

piece　of　wood。　　From　the　representations　of　ancient　tools　found　in　the

paintings　at　Herculaneum　it　appears　that　the　frame…saw　used　by　the

ancients　very　nearly　resembled　that　still　in　use；　and　we　are　informed

that　the　tools　employed　in　the　carpenters'　shops　at　Nazareth　at　this

day　are　in　most　respects　the　same　as　those　represented　in　the　buried

Roman　city。　　Another　very　ancient　tool　referred　to　in　the　Bible　and　in

Homer　was　the　File；　which　was　used　to　sharpen　weapons　and　implements。

Thus　the　Hebrews　〃had　a　file　for　the　mattocks；　and　for　the　coulters；

and　for　the　forks；　and　for　the　axes；　and　to　sharpen　the　goads。〃*

　＇footnote。。。

1　Samuel；　ch。　xiii。　v。　21。

　。。。＇

When　to　these　we　add　the　adze；　plane…irons；　the　anger；　and　the

chisel；　we　sum　up　the　tools　principally　relied　on　by　the　early

mechanics　for　working　in　wood　and　iron。



Such　continued　to　be　the　chief　tools　in　use　down　almost　to　our　own

day。　　The　smith　was　at　first　the　principal　tool…maker；　but　special

branches　of　trade　were　gradually　established；　devoted　to　tool…making。

So　long；　however；　as　the　workman　relied　mainly　on　his　dexterity　of

hand；　the　amount　of　production　was　comparatively　limited；　for　the

number　of　skilled　workmen　was　but　small。　　The　articles　turned　out　by

them；　being　the　product　of　tedious　manual　labour；　were　too　dear　to

come　into　common　use；　and　were　made　almost　exclusively　for　the　richer

classes　of　the　community。　　It　was　not　until　machinery　had　been

invented　and　become　generally　adopted　that　many　of　the　ordinary

articles　of　necessity　and　of　comfort　were　produced　in　sufficient

abundance　and　at　such　prices　as　enabled　them　to　enter　into　the

consumption　of　the　great　body　of　the　people。



But　every　improver　of　tools　had　a　long　and　difficult　battle　to　fight；

for　any　improvement　in　their　effective　power　was　sure　to　touch　the

interests　of　some　established　craft。　　Especially　was　this　the　case

with　machines；　which　are　but　tools　of　a　more　complete　though

complicated　kind　than　those　above　described。



Take；　for　instance；　the　case　of　the　Saw。　　The　tedious　drudgery　of

dividing　timber　by　the　old　fashioned　hand…saw　is　well　known。　　To　avoid

it；　some　ingenious　person　suggested　that　a　number　of　saws　should　be

fixed　to　a　frame　in　a　mill；　so　contrived　as　to　work　with　a

reciprocating　motion；　upwards　and　downwards；　or　backwards　and

forwards；　and　that　this　frame　so　mounted　should　be　yoked　to　the　mill

wheel；　and　the　saws　driven　by　the　power　of　wind　or　water。　　The　plan

was　tried；　and；　as　may　readily　be　imagined；　the　amount　of　effective

work　done　by　this　machine…saw　was　immense；　compared　with　the　tedious

process　of　sawing　by　hand。



It　will　be　observed；　however；　that　the　new　method　must　have　seriously

interfered　with　the　labour　of　the　hand…sawyers；　and　it　was　but

natural　that　they　should　regard　the　establishment　of　the　saw…mills

with　suspicion　and　hostility。　　Hence　a　long　period　elapsed　before　the

hand…sawyers　would　permit　the　new　machinery　to　be　set　up　and　worked。

The　first　saw…mill　in　England　was　erected　by　a　Dutchman；　near　London；

in　1663；　but　was　shortly　abandoned　in　consequence　of　the　determined

hostility　of　the　workmen。　　More　than　a　century　passed　before　a　second

saw…mill　was　set　up；　when；　in　1767；　Mr。　John　Houghton；　a　London

timber…merchant；　by　the　desire　and　with　the　approbation　of　the

Society　of　Arts；　erected　one　at　Limehouse；　to　be　driven　by　wind。　　The

work　was　directed　by　one　James　Stansfield；　who　had　gone　over　to

Holland　for　the　purpose　of　learning　the　art　of　constructing　and

managing　the　sawing　machinery。　　But　the　mill　was　no　sooner　erected

than　a　mob　assembled　and　razed　it　to　the　ground。　　The　principal

rioters　having　been　punished；　and　the　loss　to　the　proprietor　having

been　made　good　by　the　nation；　a　new　mill　was　shortly　after　built；　and

it　was　suffered　to　work　without　further　molestation。



Improved　methods　of　manufacture　have　usually　had　to　encounter　the

same　kind　of　opposition。　　Thus；　when　the　Flemish　weavers　came　over　to

England　in　the　seventeenth　century；　bringing　with　them　their　skill

and　their　industry；　they　excited　great　jealousy　and　hostility　amongst

the　native　workmen。　　Their　competition　as　workmen　was　resented　as　an

injury；　b