english-第8章
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Response Prevention
A therapeutic technique where stimuli is presented to the client but the client is not permitted to exercise his or her typical response。 Used for the treatment of phobias； obsessive pulsive disorder and other anxiety disorders。
Reticular Formation （Reticular Activating System）
Part of the brain stem involved in arousal and attention； sleep and wakefulness； and control of reflexes。
Retinal Disparity
The binocular cue to distance referring to the distance between the two images sent to the brain by our eyes。 The farther apart these images； the closer the object。
Retrieval
The process of bringing material out of long term memory and into consciousness。
Retroactive Interference
Interference in memory created by later learning。
Reversal Design
Any single subject design that includes the removal of treatment to determine if the subject reverts to baseline （ex。 ABA； ABAB）
Reversibility
A child's ability to reverse operations and therefore recognize that the qualities of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance。 Occurs in Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development （e。g。； 1＋2=3 to 3…2=1）。
Reward Power
Power derived through an ability to offer rewards。
Rogers； Carl
A humanistic Psychologist who developed Client…Centered Therapy。
Rorschach Inkblot Test
A projective technique utilizing ambiguous inkblots as stimuli。
S
Sample
Portion of the entire population used to estimate what is likely happening within a population。
Sample Mean
Abbreviated with a lowercase x with a horizontal line over top （called 'x…bar'）； the sample mean is the true mean of a sample of data often used to estimate the true mean of the entire population。
Sample Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of a sample of the population。 Often used to estimate the true population standard deviation。 Often abbreviated 'SD。〃
Sampling Error
The amount of error associated with a sample due to its deviation from the population
Scatter Plot
A graphical representation of data received in a correlational study。
Schema
The cognitive structure utilized to make sense of the world。
Secondary Reinforcer
A reinforcer other than one which meets our basic needs such as food or water （e。g。； intellectual stimulation； money； praise）。
Selection Bias
Errors in the selection and placement of subjects into groups that results in differences between groups which could effect the results of an experiment。
Self Actualization
The process of understanding oneself more pletely and being aware of issues affecting one's life。
Self…Concept
The subjective perception of the self。
Self Efficacy
One's belief in his or her own ability。
Self Serving Bias
The tendency to assign internal attributes to successes and external factors to failures。
Semantic Memory
The part of declarative memory that stores general information such as names and facts。
Semi…Interquartile Range
One half of the interquartile range
Sensation
Information brought in through the senses。
Sensorimotor Stage
The first stage in Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development where a child's primary way of learning about the world is through the senses and movement。
Sensory Adaptation
The reduced ability to sense a stimulus after prolonged exposure。
Sensory Memory
The brief storage of information brought in through the senses； typically only lasts up to a few seconds。
Separation Anxiety
Distress caused by the absence of an infant's primary caregiver
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter involved in mood； sleep； appetite； and impulsive and aggressive behavior。 Too little has been associated with depression and some anxiety disorders （e。g。； obsessive…pulsive disorder）。 Many antidepressants attempt to reduce the amount of serotonin that is taken back （reuptake） into the sending neuron （e。g。； Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors ＇SRI＇）。
Sexual Orientation
A feeling of attractedness or arousal associated with a particular gender。 Sexual behavior can be a result of this but does not necessarily define a person's orientation。
Shaping
Gradually molding a specific response by reinforcing responses that e close to the desired response。
Short Term Memory
The stage of memory where information is stored for up to 30 seconds prior to either being forgotten or transferred to long term memory。
Sigma （lowercase）
The abbreviation for the standard deviation of a population。 （s）
Sigma （uppercase）
The abbreviation for summation。 （S）
Situational Attribute
An attribute explained or interpreted as being caused by external influences。
Skinner； B。 F。
Considered the father of behavioral therapy。 He once stated that with the ability to control a child's environment； he could raise a child to bee anything he wanted。
Skinner Box
A cage designed for animals in operant conditioning experiments。
Skew
The degree to which a curve or distribution of scores has extreme scores atypical of the majority of scores
Social Facilitation
The effect of other’s presence on one’s performance。 Typically we perform simple or well…learned tasks better in front of others and difficult or novel tasks worse。
Social Learning Theory
Developmental theory arguing that personality is learned through the interactions with the environment。
Social Loafing
The tendency for people to work less on a task the greater the number of people are working on that task。
Social Psychology
The branch of psychology which focuses on society and it's impact on the individual。
Social Roles
Accepted behaviors associated with a particular position within a group。
Social Skills
Skills or behaviors deemed desirable or necessary to effectively interact with society。
Social Support
Term used to describe the degree of emotional support afforded a client by friends； family； and other acquaintances。
Somatic Nervous System
Sub system of the Peripheral Nervous System （PNS）。 Primary function is to regulate the actions of the skeletal muscles。
Spearman's Rho
A correlational technique used primarily for rank ordered data （ordinal scale）。
Split…Half Reliability
The correlation coefficient determined by paring first half of the measurement to the second half。 Measure of the internal consistency of a test or measuring device。
Spontaneous Recovery
The tendency for previously learned information to resurface rapidly after a period of extinction。 Information that is spontaneously recovered is thought to lay dormant but not forgotten （e。g。； riding a bicycle after a long period of not riding）。
Stage
A period of development that occurs at about the same time for each person。 Developmental and Personality theories are often made up of a series of stages。
Stage Theory
The idea that an individual must pass through one stage of development before he or she can reach the next stage。
Standard Deviation
A measure of spread within a distribution （the square root of the variance）。 The most popular and most reliable measure of variability but the more skewed a distribution； the more error there will be in the standard deviation because of its reliance on the mean。
Standard Error of Measurement
a statistical procedure used to determine the amount of error of any measurement device
Standard Error of the Mean
An estimation of the unaccounted for error within a mean。 If the mean is 10 and the standard error of the mean is 2； then the true score is likely to fall somewhere between 8 and 12 or 10 ＋/… 2。
Standardization
The process of making a test or procedure the same for everyone so that results can be pared to each other。
Standard Score
A score derived by transforming the data based on the standard deviation。 Standard scores can then be pared to one another on face value。 （See z…score； T…score； NCE score； stanines； and Wechsler's Deviation IQ Score）
Stanine
A standard score that literally means Standard Nine； stanines have a mean of five and a standard deviation of approximately two。 Stanines 2 through 8 are exactly 1/2 standard deviations and stanines one and nine or open ended。
Statistic
An observed characteristic of a sample （e。g。； 20％ improvement rate； range
