lecture ii-第2章

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fight　against　the　inveterate　custom　of　our　lower　classes　to
contract　unions　without　the　sanction　of　the　Church。　The　young
couple　saved　the　expense　of　a　religious　ceremony　and　thought
their　union　legally　established　as　soon　as　they　were　publicly
joined　to　each　other　in　the　presence　of　the　community；　which　was
invited　on　the　occasion　to　a　sort　of　festival　called　the
vesselic。　No　later　than　the　end　of　the　sixteenth　century　an
assembly　of　Divines　convened　by　Ivan　the　Cruel　entered　a　strong
protest　against　the　custom　which　everywhere　prevailed　of　omitting
the　religious　consecration　of　the　marriage　tie；　and　strong
measures　were　in　consequence　taken　against　those　who　did　not
comply　with　the　requirements　of　the　clergy。　All；　however；　failed；
and　marriage　remained　in　the　eyes　of　the　common　people　nothing
more　than　a　sort　of　civil　contract；　entered　into　in　the　presence
of　the　community　as　a　sign　of　its　recognition　and　sanction。　
　　　　That　such　generally　was；　and　still　is；　the　prevailing　opinion
of　the　Russian　peasant　may　be　seen　from　the　following　facts。　
　　　　Among　the　Cossacks　of　the　Don；　not　more　than　a　century　ago；
people；　as　a　general　rule；　were　joined　in　marriage　in　the
following　way：　The　young　couple；　after　previous　agreement；　went
to　the　popular　assembly　of　the　village；　or　stanitza；　this
assembly　being　known　by　the　name　of　Majdan；　and　declared　that
they　had　made　up　their　minds　to　become　husband　and　wife。〃　Be　my
wife；〃　said　the　bridegroom　to　the　bride。　〃Be　my　husband；〃　she
answered。　〃So　be　it；〃　chanted　the　assembly。　〃We　wish　you　good
luck　and　happiness。〃（1*）
　　　　On　the　Don　the　absence　of　a　religious　ceremony　may；　to　a
certain　extent；　be　explained　by　the　scarcity　of　priests；　but　such
is　by　no　means　the　case　in　those　provinces　which　were　annexed　to
Muscovy　in　the　middle　of　the　seventeenth　century；　after　ages　of
political　dependence　on　Poland。　I　refer　to　the　Governments　of
Kiev；　Tchernigov；　and　Poltava；　which　constitute　what　in　our　days
is　known　under　the　name　of　Little　Russia。　It　is；　therefore；　very
interesting　to　find　that　in　those　provinces　the　religious
consecration　of　marriage　is　still　considered　by　the　peasants　as　a
superfluous　ceremony。　Matrimonial　life　begins　here　after　the
nuptial　festival；　the　〃vesselic；〃　and　weeks　may　pass　before　the
couple　find　it　necessary　to　be　married　at　church。　Facts　of　the
same　description　have　been　noticed　by　Madame　Efimenko　in　the
extreme　north　of　Russia；　in　the　Government　of　Archangel；　occupied
by　colonists　from　Great　Russia。
　　　　The　customary　law　of　Russia；　like　the　old　German
jurisprudence；　established　a　difference　between　betrothal　and
marriage。　Both　are　considered　to　be　legal　acts；　and　both　ought
therefore　to　have　distinct　legal　effects。　Betrothal　is　legally
concluded　as　soon　as　the　two　families　have　come　to　an　agreement；
first；　as　to　the　amount　of　the　marriage　expenses　each　party　is　to
bear；　and　secondly；　as　to　the　time　fixed　for　the　wedding。　The
expenses　are　of　different　kinds：　they　comprise；　first；　the
〃kladka〃　of　the　bridegroom；　a　sort　of　pretium　emptionis　paid　to
the　bride's　father；　and　the　dowry　which　the　bride　receives　from
her　family。　Then　come　the　presents　to　be　made　by　each　party　to
the　parents　of　the　bride　and　those　of　the　bridegroom；　and　the
amount　of　expense　which　the　bridegroom　has　to　incur　on　the
occasion　of　the　nuptial　feast。　All　these　are　regularly　discussed
and　settled　by　a　sort　of　verbal　agreement；　known　among　the
peasantry　by　the　name　of　〃riad。〃　In　ancient　Russia　when
agreements　of　this　kind　were　entered　into　even　by　the　higher
classes；　the　〃riad〃　was　always　put　down　in　the　form　of　a　written
contract；　and　this　is　still　occasionally　done　in　the　northern
Governments　of　Russia；　especially　in　that　of　Archangel。　Betrothal
is　considered　to　be　legally　concluded　at　the　moment　when　the　two
parties；　that　of　the　bridegroom　and　that　of　the　bride；　have
shaken　hands。　It　is　not　without　reason　that　i　insist　on　the　fact
that　it　is　this　indefinite　expression　of　the　two　parties　which
concludes　the　act　of　betrothal。　I　want　to　impress　on　your　minds
that　the　presence　of　the　bridegroom's　father　is　not　considered
necessary。　An　outsider；　called　〃Svat；〃　may　be　authorised　by　the
father　to　speak　and　act　for　him　in　a　contract　of　this　sort。　
　　　　As　soon　as　the　ceremony　of　shaking　hands　is　over　neither　of
the　contracting　parties　can　break　the　engagement　without
incurring　the　obligation　of　pecuniary　compensation　for　the　wrong
he　does　to　the　other　party　by　his　breach　of　contract。　This
compensation　is　of　two　different　kinds：　the　one　seems　to　have
rather　a　moral；　the　other　a　purely　monetary　or　material　origin。
If　the　bride's　party　breaks　the　contract；　the　bridegroom　and　his
family　consider　themselves　injured　in　their　honour。　If；　however；
the　breach　of　promise　has　been　made　by　the　bridegroom；　the　case
is　more　serious。　Then　it　is　not　only　the　honour　of　the　bride　that
suffers；　but　also　the　material　interests　of　the　family；　since　a
bride　rejected　by　the　man　whom　she　was　on　the　point　of　marrying；
will　generally　experience　great　difficulty　in　finding　another
suitor。　Such　being　the　case；　the　customary　court　of　the　village
usually　accords　to　the　party　aggrieved　the　right　to　demand　a
pecuniary　compensation　〃for　the　loss　of　honour　the　bride　is
supposed　to　have　sustained〃　（〃sa　beschestic；〃　say　our　peasants）。
In　case　security　has　been　received　for　a　bridegroom's　performance
of　his　promise　by　a　pledge　or　by　the　partial　payment　of　the　money
which　he　owes　to　the　bride's　father；　the　question　of　compensation
is　easily　settled；　as　the　family　of　the　bride　retain　for　her　own
use　the　money　already　received；　but　if　no　payment　has　been　made；
the　court　must　decide　the　amount　to　be　paid。　It　very　seldom
happens　that　the　sum　demanded　exceeds　thirty　roubles；　at　least；
in　the　provinces　of　Great　Russia。　No　extenuating　circumstances
are　admitted　on　this　occasion　by　the　Court。　A　father　leaving　once
declared　that　he　was　drunk　when　he　gave　his　consent　to　the
proposed　marriage　of　his　son；　received　no　other　answer　but　this：
〃You　may　be　drunk；　but　you　must　be　clever〃　（bud　pyan　da　umen）。　
　　　　The　breach　of　contract　may　have　two　different　results：　one；
that　which　I　have　just　mentioned；　a　compensation　in　money　for　the
loss　of　honour；　as　to　the　other；　I　have　already　stated　that　the
contract　of　betrothal　contains　certain　engagements　as　to　the
amount　of　the　pretium　emptionis；　of　the　dowry　and　of　the
different　expenses　to　be　incurred　by　each　party　on　the　occasion
of　the　marriage。　If　certain　of　these　engagements　have　been　partly
fulfilled　before　the　breach　of　promise；　the　wronged　party　has　the
right　to　demand　the　restitution　of　the　money　which　had　been
spent；　the　bridegroom　receives　back　the　presents　which　he　has
made　to　his　bride；　and　the　bride　those　given　to　the　bridegroom。
The　Courts　uniformly　recognise　the　necessity　for　such　mutual
restitution；　the　only　exception　being　when　the　money　already　paid
serves　to　constitute　the　amount　of　compensation　to　either　party
for　the　wrong　inflicted　by　the　loss　of　honour。　
　　　　The　contract　of　marriage　which　follows　that　of　betrothal；
cannot　at　the　present　time　be　dissolved；　but　we　should　be
mistaken　if　we　inferred　from　this　fact　that　this　indissolubility
of　marriage　has　always　been　recognised　by　the　common　law　of
Russia。　Though　the　peasants　are　now　known　to　use　the　following
aphorisms：　〃Marriage　is　known　but　not　unmarriage；〃　〃A　bad　pope
may　marry　you；　but　even　a　good　one　cannot　unmarry　you；〃　the　case
was　quite　different　in　the　past。　Not　longer　ago　than　the　end　of
the　eighteenth　century　the　Cossacks　of　the　Don　practiced　divorce。
A　husband　and　wife　who　did　not　wish　to　live　together　any　longer；
appeared　before　the　popular　assembly　and　made　the　following
declaration。　〃This　woman　is　no　longer　my　wife；〃　〃this　man　is　no
longer　my　husband。〃　〃Be　it　so；〃　was　the　answer　of　the　assembly；
and　the　marriage　tie　ceased　to　exist。　During　the　sixteenth
century　husbands　in　Great　Russia　were　still　accustomed　to　grant
their　wives　full　liberty　to　contract　a　new　engagement；　or；　at
least；　to　live　apart　from　their　legal　lords。　An　archbishop　of
Novgorod；　Theodosius；　bitterly　complained　of　this　practice。　Up　to
the　middle　of