the golden bough-第252章

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urope。　At　the　same　time　we　must　bear　in　mind　that　among　the　British　Celts　the　chief　fire…festivals　of　the　year　appear　certainly　to　have　been　those　of　Beltane　（May　Day）　and　Hallowe'en　（the　last　day　of　October）；　and　this　suggests　a　doubt　whether　the　Celts　of　Gaul　also　may　not　have　celebrated　their　principal　rites　of　fire；　including　their　burnt　sacrifices　of　men　and　animals；　at　the　beginning　of　May　or　the　beginning　of　November　rather　than　at　Midsummer。

We　have　still　to　ask；　What　is　the　meaning　of　such　sacrifices？　Why　were　men　and　animals　burnt　to　death　at　these　festivals？　If　we　are　right　in　interpreting　the　modern　European　fire…festivals　as　attempts　to　break　the　power　of　witchcraft　by　burning　or　banning　the　witches　and　warlocks；　it　seems　to　follow　that　we　must　explain　the　human　sacrifices　of　the　Celts　in　the　same　manner；　that　is；　we　must　suppose　that　the　men　whom　the　Druids　burnt　in　wicker…work　images　were　condemned　to　death　on　the　ground　that　they　were　witches　or　wizards；　and　that　the　mode　of　execution　by　fire　was　chosen　because　burning　alive　is　deemed　the　surest　mode　of　getting　rid　of　these　noxious　and　dangerous　beings。　The　same　explanation　would　apply　to　the　cattle　and　wild　animals　of　many　kinds　which　the　Celts　burned　along　with　the　men。　They；　too；　we　may　conjecture；　were　supposed　to　be　either　under　the　spell　of　witchcraft　or　actually　to　be　the　witches　and　wizards；　who　had　transformed　themselves　into　animals　for　the　purpose　of　prosecuting　their　infernal　plots　against　the　welfare　of　their　fellow…creatures。　This　conjecture　is　confirmed　by　the　observation　that　the　victims　most　commonly　burned　in　modern　bonfires　have　been　cats；　and　that　cats　are　precisely　the　animals　into　which；　with　the　possible　exception　of　hares；　witches　were　most　usually　supposed　to　transform　themselves。　Again；　we　have　seen　that　serpents　and　foxes　used　sometimes　to　be　burnt　in　the　midsummer　fires；　and　Welsh　and　German　witches　are　reported　to　have　assumed　the　form　both　of　foxes　and　serpents。　In　short；　when　we　remember　the　great　variety　of　animals　whose　forms　witches　can　assume　at　pleasure；　it　seems　easy　on　this　hypothesis　to　account　for　the　variety　of　living　creatures　that　have　been　burnt　at　festivals　both　in　ancient　Gaul　and　modern　Europe；　all　these　victims；　we　may　surmise；　were　doomed　to　the　flames；　not　because　they　were　animals；　but　because　they　were　believed　to　be　witches　who　had　taken　the　shape　of　animals　for　their　nefarious　purposes。　One　advantage　of　explaining　the　ancient　Celtic　sacrifices　in　this　way　is　that　it　introduces；　as　it　were；　a　harmony　and　consistency　into　the　treatment　which　Europe　has　meted　out　to　witches　from　the　earliest　times　down　to　about　two　centuries　ago；　when　the　growing　influence　of　rationalism　discredited　the　belief　in　witchcraft　and　put　a　stop　to　the　custom　of　burning　witches。　Be　that　as　it　may；　we　can　now　perhaps　understand　why　the　Druids　believed　that　the　more　persons　they　sentenced　to　death；　the　greater　would　be　the　fertility　of　the　land。　To　a　modern　reader　the　connexion　at　first　sight　may　not　be　obvious　between　the　activity　of　the　hangman　and　the　productivity　of　the　earth。　But　a　little　reflection　may　satisfy　him　that　when　the　criminals　who　perish　at　the　stake　or　on　the　gallows　are　witches；　whose　delight　it　is　to　blight　the　crops　of　the　farmer　or　to　lay　them　low　under　storms　of　hail；　the　execution　of　these　wretches　is　really　calculated　to　ensure　an　abundant　harvest　by　removing　one　of　the　principal　causes　which　paralyse　the　efforts　and　blast　the　hopes　of　the　husbandman。

The　Druidical　sacrifices　which　we　are　considering　were　explained　in　a　different　way　by　W。　Mannhardt。　He　supposed　that　the　men　whom　the　Druids　burned　in　wicker…work　images　represented　the　spirits　of　vegetation；　and　accordingly　that　the　custom　of　burning　them　was　a　magical　ceremony　intended　to　secure　the　necessary　sunshine　for　the　crops。　Similarly；　he　seems　to　have　inclined　to　the　view　that　the　animals　which　used　to　be　burnt　in　the　bonfires　represented　the　cornspirit；　which；　as　we　saw　in　an　earlier　part　of　this　work；　is　often　supposed　to　assume　the　shape　of　an　animal。　This　theory　is　no　doubt　tenable；　and　the　great　authority　of　W。　Mannhardt　entitles　it　to　careful　consideration。　I　adopted　it　in　former　editions　of　this　book；　but　on　reconsideration　it　seems　to　me　on　the　whole　to　be　less　probable　than　the　theory　that　the　men　and　animals　burnt　in　the　fires　perished　in　the　character　of　witches。　This　latter　view　is　strongly　supported　by　the　testimony　of　the　people　who　celebrate　the　fire…festivals；　since　a　popular　name　for　the　custom　of　kindling　the　fires　is　burning　the　witches；　effigies　of　witches　are　sometimes　consumed　in　the　flames；　and　the　fires；　their　embers；　or　their　ashes　are　supposed　to　furnish　protection　against　witchcraft。　On　the　other　hand　there　is　little　to　show　that　the　effigies　or　the　animals　burnt　in　the　fires　are　regarded　by　the　people　as　representatives　of　the　vegetation…spirit；　and　that　the　bonfires　are　sun…charms。　With　regard　to　serpents　in　particular；　which　used　to　be　burnt　in　the　midsummer　fire　at　Luchon；　I　am　not　aware　of　any　certain　evidence　that　in　Europe　snakes　have　been　regarded　as　embodiments　of　the　tree…spirit　or　corn…spirit；　though　in　other　parts　of　the　world　the　conception　appears　to　be　not　unknown。　Whereas　the　popular　faith　in　the　transformation　of　witches　into　animals　is　so　general　and　deeply　rooted；　and　the　fear　of　these　uncanny　beings　is　so　strong；　that　it　seems　safer　to　suppose　that　the　cats　and　other　animals　which　were　burnt　in　the　fire　suffered　death　as　embodiments　of　witches　than　that　they　perished　as　representatives　of　vegetation…spirits。

Chapter　65。　Balder　and　the　Mistletoe　THE　READER　may　remember　that　the　preceding　account　of　the　popular　fire…festivals　of　Europe　was　suggested　by　the　myth　of　the　Norse　god　Balder；　who　is　said　to　have　been　slain　by　a　branch　of　mistletoe　and　burnt　in　a　great　fire。　We　have　now　to　enquire　how　far　the　customs　which　have　been　passed　in　review　help　to　shed　light　on　the　myth。　In　this　enquiry　it　may　be　convenient　to　begin　with　the　mistletoe；　the　instrument　of　Balder's　death。

From　time　immemorial　the　mistletoe　has　been　the　object　of　superstitious　veneration　in　Europe。　It　was　worshipped　by　the　Druids；　as　we　learn　from　a　famous　passage　of　Pliny。　After　enumerating　the　different　kinds　of　mistletoe；　he　proceeds：　In　treating　of　this　subject；　the　admiration　in　which　the　mistletoe　is　held　throughout　Gaul　ought　not　to　pass　unnoticed。　The　Druids；　for　so　they　call　their　wizards；　esteem　nothing　more　sacred　than　the　mistletoe　and　the　tree　on　which　it　grows；　provided　only　that　the　tree　is　an　oak。　But　apart　from　this　they　choose　oak…woods　for　their　sacred　groves　and　perform　no　sacred　rites　without　oak…leaves；　so　that　the　very　name　of　Druids　may　be　regarded　as　a　Greek　appellation　derived　from　their　worship　of　the　oak。　For　they　believe　that　whatever　grows　on　these　trees　is　sent　from　heaven；　and　is　a　sign　that　the　tree　has　been　chosen　by　the　god　himself。　The　mistletoe　is　very　rarely　to　be　met　with；　but　when　it　is　found；　they　gather　it　with　solemn　ceremony。　This　they　do　above　all　on　the　sixth　day　of　the　moon；　from　whence　they　date　the　beginnings　of　their　months；　of　their　years；　and　of　their　thirty　years'　cycle；　because　by　the　sixth　day　the　moon　has　plenty　of　vigour　and　has　not　run　half　its　course。　After　due　preparations　have　been　made　for　a　sacrifice　and　a　feast　under　the　tree；　they　hail　it　as　the　universal　healer　and　bring　to　the　spot　two　white　bulls；　whose　horns　have　never　been　bound　before。　A　priest　clad　in　a　white　robe　climbs　the　tree　and　with　a　golden　sickle　cuts　the　mistletoe；　which　is　caught　in　a　white　cloth。　Then　they　sacrifice　the　victims；　praying　that　God　may　make　his　own　gift　to　prosper　with　those　upon　whom　he　has　bestowed　it。　They　believe　that　a　potion　prepared　from　mistletoe　will　make　barren　animals　to　bring　forth；　and　that　the　plant　is　a　remedy　against　all　poison。

In　another　passage　Pliny　tells　us　that　in　medicine　the　mistletoe　which　grows　on　an　oak　was　esteemed　the　most　efficacious；　and　that　its　efficacy　was　by　some　superstitious　people　supposed　to　be　increased　if　the　plant　was　gathered　on　the　first　day　of　the　moon　without　the　use　of　iron；　and　if　when　gathered　it　was　not　allowed　to　touch　the　earth；　oak…mistleto