the golden bough-第22章

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is　moral　or　immoral　according　as　his　behaviour　comports　or　conflicts　with　the　general　good。　Hence　belief　and　practice　or；　in　theological　language；　faith　and　works　are　equally　essential　to　religion；　which　cannot　exist　without　both　of　them。　But　it　is　not　necessary　that　religious　practice　should　always　take　the　form　of　a　ritual；　that　is；　it　need　not　consist　in　the　offering　of　sacrifice；　the　recitation　of　prayers；　and　other　outward　ceremonies。　Its　aim　is　to　please　the　deity；　and　if　the　deity　is　one　who　delights　in　charity　and　mercy　and　purity　more　than　in　oblations　of　blood；　the　chanting　of　hymns；　and　the　fumes　of　incense；　his　worshippers　will　best　please　him；　not　by　prostrating　themselves　before　him；　by　intoning　his　praises；　and　by　filling　his　temples　with　costly　gifts；　but　by　being　pure　and　merciful　and　charitable　towards　men；　for　in　so　doing　they　will　imitate；　so　far　as　human　infirmity　allows；　the　perfections　of　the　divine　nature。　It　was　this　ethical　side　of　religion　which　the　Hebrew　prophets；　inspired　with　a　noble　ideal　of　God's　goodness　and　holiness；　were　never　weary　of　inculcating。　Thus　Micah　says：　He　hath　shewed　thee；　O　man；　what　is　good；　and　what　doth　the　Lord　require　of　thee；　but　to　do　justly；　and　to　love　mercy；　and　to　walk　humbly　with　thy　God？　And　at　a　later　time　much　of　the　force　by　which　Christianity　conquered　the　world　was　drawn　from　the　same　high　conception　of　God's　moral　nature　and　the　duty　laid　on　men　of　conforming　themselves　to　it。　Pure　religion　and　undefiled；　says　St。　James；　before　God　and　the　Father　is　this；　To　visit　the　fatherless　and　widows　in　their　affliction；　and　to　keep　himself　unspotted　from　the　world。

But　if　religion　involves；　first；　a　belief　in　superhuman　beings　who　rule　the　world；　and；　second；　an　attempt　to　win　their　favour；　it　clearly　assumes　that　the　course　of　nature　is　to　some　extent　elastic　or　variable；　and　that　we　can　persuade　or　induce　the　mighty　beings　who　control　it　to　deflect；　for　our　benefit；　the　current　of　events　from　the　channel　in　which　they　would　otherwise　flow。　Now　this　implied　elasticity　or　variability　of　nature　is　directly　opposed　to　the　principles　of　magic　as　well　as　of　science；　both　of　which　assume　that　the　processes　of　nature　are　rigid　and　invariable　in　their　operation；　and　that　they　can　as　little　be　turned　from　their　course　by　persuasion　and　entreaty　as　by　threats　and　intimidation。　The　distinction　between　the　two　conflicting　views　of　the　universe　turns　on　their　answer　to　the　crucial　question；　Are　the　forces　which　govern　the　world　conscious　and　personal；　or　unconscious　and　impersonal？　Religion；　as　a　conciliation　of　the　superhuman　powers；　assumes　the　former　member　of　the　alternative。　For　all　conciliation　implies　that　the　being　conciliated　is　a　conscious　or　personal　agent；　that　his　conduct　is　in　some　measure　uncertain；　and　that　he　can　be　prevailed　upon　to　vary　it　in　the　desired　direction　by　a　judicious　appeal　to　his　interests；　his　appetites；　or　his　emotions。　Conciliation　is　never　employed　towards　things　which　are　regarded　as　inanimate；　nor　towards　persons　whose　behaviour　in　the　particular　circumstances　is　known　to　be　determined　with　absolute　certainty。　Thus　in　so　far　as　religion　assumes　the　world　to　be　directed　by　conscious　agents　who　may　be　turned　from　their　purpose　by　persuasion；　it　stands　in　fundamental　antagonism　to　magic　as　well　as　to　science；　both　of　which　take　for　granted　that　the　course　of　nature　is　determined；　not　by　the　passions　or　caprice　of　personal　beings；　but　by　the　operation　of　immutable　laws　acting　mechanically。　In　magic；　indeed；　the　assumption　is　only　implicit；　but　in　science　it　is　explicit。　It　is　true　that　magic　often　deals　with　spirits；　which　are　personal　agents　of　the　kind　assumed　by　religion；　but　whenever　it　does　so　in　its　proper　form；　it　treats　them　exactly　in　the　same　fashion　as　it　treats　inanimate　agents；　that　is；　it　constrains　or　coerces　instead　of　conciliating　or　propitiating　them　as　religion　would　do。　Thus　it　assumes　that　all　personal　beings；　whether　human　or　divine；　are　in　the　last　resort　subject　to　those　impersonal　forces　which　control　all　things；　but　which　nevertheless　can　be　turned　to　account　by　any　one　who　knows　how　to　manipulate　them　by　the　appropriate　ceremonies　and　spells。　In　ancient　Egypt；　for　example；　the　magicians　claimed　the　power　of　compelling　even　the　highest　gods　to　do　their　bidding；　and　actually　threatened　them　with　destruction　in　case　of　disobedience。　Sometimes；　without　going　quite　so　far　as　that；　the　wizard　declared　that　he　would　scatter　the　bones　of　Osiris　or　reveal　his　sacred　legend；　if　the　god　proved　contumacious。　Similarly　in　India　at　the　present　day　the　great　Hindoo　trinity　itself　of　Brahma；　Vishnu；　and　Siva　is　subject　to　the　sorcerers；　who；　by　means　of　their　spells；　exercise　such　an　ascendency　over　the　mightiest　deities；　that　these　are　bound　submissively　to　execute　on　earth　below；　or　in　heaven　above；　whatever　commands　their　masters　the　magicians　may　please　to　issue。　There　is　a　saying　everywhere　current　in　India：　The　whole　universe　is　subject　to　the　gods；　the　gods　are　subject　to　the　spells　（mantras）；　the　spells　to　the　Brahmans；　therefore　the　Brahmans　are　our　gods。

This　radical　conflict　of　principle　between　magic　and　religion　sufficiently　explains　the　relentless　hostility　with　which　in　history　the　priest　has　often　pursued　the　magician。　The　haughty　self…sufficiency　of　the　magician；　his　arrogant　demeanour　towards　the　higher　powers；　and　his　unabashed　claim　to　exercise　a　sway　like　theirs　could　not　but　revolt　the　priest；　to　whom；　with　his　awful　sense　of　the　divine　majesty；　and　his　humble　prostration　in　presence　of　it；　such　claims　and　such　a　demeanour　must　have　appeared　an　impious　and　blasphemous　usurpation　of　prerogatives　that　belong　to　God　alone。　And　sometimes；　we　may　suspect；　lower　motives　concurred　to　whet　the　edge　of　the　priest's　hostility。　He　professed　to　be　the　proper　medium；　the　true　intercessor　between　God　and　man；　and　no　doubt　his　interests　as　well　as　his　feelings　were　often　injured　by　a　rival　practitioner；　who　preached　a　surer　and　smoother　road　to　fortune　than　the　rugged　and　slippery　path　of　divine　favour。

Yet　this　antagonism；　familiar　as　it　is　to　us；　seems　to　have　made　its　appearance　comparatively　late　in　the　history　of　religion。　At　an　earlier　stage　the　functions　of　priest　and　sorcerer　were　often　combined　or；　to　speak　perhaps　more　correctly；　were　not　yet　differentiated　from　each　other。　To　serve　his　purpose　man　wooed　the　good…will　of　gods　or　spirits　by　prayer　and　sacrifice；　while　at　the　same　time　he　had　recourse　to　ceremonies　and　forms　of　words　which　he　hoped　would　of　themselves　bring　about　the　desired　result　without　the　help　of　god　or　devil。　In　short；　he　performed　religious　and　magical　rites　simultaneously；　he　uttered　prayers　and　incantations　almost　in　the　same　breath；　knowing　or　recking　little　of　the　theoretical　inconsistency　of　his　behaviour；　so　long　as　by　hook　or　crook　he　contrived　to　get　what　he　wanted。　Instances　of　this　fusion　or　confusion　of　magic　with　religion　have　already　met　us　in　the　practices　of　Melanesians　and　of　other　peoples。

The　same　confusion　of　magic　and　religion　has　survived　among　peoples　that　have　risen　to　higher　levels　of　culture。　It　was　rife　in　ancient　India　and　ancient　Egypt；　it　is　by　no　means　extinct　among　European　peasantry　at　the　present　day。　With　regard　to　ancient　India　we　are　told　by　an　eminent　Sanscrit　scholar　that　the　sacrificial　ritual　at　the　earliest　period　of　which　we　have　detailed　information　is　pervaded　with　practices　that　breathe　the　spirit　of　the　most　primitive　magic。　Speaking　of　the　importance　of　magic　in　the　East；　and　especially　in　Egypt；　Professor　Maspero　remarks　that　we　ought　not　to　attach　to　the　word　magic　the　degrading　idea　which　it　almost　inevitably　calls　up　in　the　mind　of　a　modern。　Ancient　magic　was　the　very　foundation　of　religion。　The　faithful　who　desired　to　obtain　some　favour　from　a　god　had　no　chance　of　succeeding　except　by　laying　hands　on　the　deity；　and　this　arrest　could　only　be　effected　by　means　of　a　certain　number　of　rites；　sacrifices；　prayers；　and　chants；　which　the　god　himself　had　revealed；　and　which　obliged　him　to　do　what　was　demanded　of　him。

Among　the　ignorant　classes　of　modern　Europe　the　same　confusion　of　ideas；　the　same　mixture　of　religion　and　magic；　crops　up　in　various　f