aeroplanes-第7章

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to　undulate；　more　or　less；　dependent　on　the　combined

action　of　the　power　and　weight；　or　momentum；

until　it　reaches　the　earth。



It　is；　therefore；　clear　that　the　atmosphere　has

an　action　on　a　plane　surface；　and　that　the　extent

of　the　action；　to　sustain　it　in　flight；　depends　on　two

things；　surface　and　speed。



Furthermore；　the　greater　the　speed　the　less　the

necessity　for　surface；　and　that　for　gliding　purposes

speed　may　be　sacrificed；　in　a　large　measure；

where　there　is　a　large　surface。



This　very　action　of　the　skipper　is　utilized　by

the　aviator　in　volplaning；that　is；　where　the

power　of　the　engine　is　cut　off；　either　by　accident；

or　designedly；　and　the　machine　descends　to　the

earth；　whether　in　a　long　straight　glide；　or　in　a

great　circle。



As　the　machine　nears　the　earth　it　is　caused　to

change　the　angle　of　flight　by　the　control　mechanism

so　that　it　will　dart　upwardly　at　an　angle；　or　downwardly；

and　thus　enable　the　pilot　to　sail　to　another

point　beyond　where　he　may　safely　land。

This　changing　the　course　of　the　machine　so　that

it　will　glide　upwardly；　means　that　the　incidence

of　the　planes　has　been　changed　to　a　positive

angle。



ANGLE　OF　INCIDENCE。In　aviation　this　is　a　term

given　to　the　position　of　a　plane；　relative　to　the

air　against　which　it　impinges。　If；　for　instance；

an　aeroplane　is　moving　through　the　air　with　the

front　margin　of　the　planes　higher　than　their　rear

margins；　it　is　said　to　have　the　planes　at　a　positive

angle　of　incidence。　If　the　rear　margins　are

higher　than　the　front；　then　the　planes　have　a　negative

angle　of　incidence。



The　word　incidence　really　means；　a　falling

upon；　or　against；　and　it　will　be　seen；　therefore；

that　the　angle　of　incidence　means　the　tilt　of　the

planes　in　relation　to　the　air　which　strikes　it。



Having　in　view；　therefore；　that　the　two　qualities；

namely；　speed　and　surface；　bear　an　intimate

relation　with　each　other；　it　may　be　understood

wherein　mechanical　flight　is　supposed　to　be　analogous

to　bird　flight。



SPEED　AND　SURFACE。Birds　which　poise　in　the

air；　like　the　humming　bird；　do　so　because　they

beat　their　wings　with　great　rapidity。　Those

which　soar；　as　stated；　can　do　so　only　by　moving

through　the　atmosphere　rapidly；　or　by　having　a

large　wing　spread　relative　to　the　weight。　It　will

thus　be　seen　that　speed　and　surface　become　the

controlling　factors　in　flight；　and　that　while　the

latter　may　be　entirely　eliminated　from　the　problem；

speed　is　absolutely　necessary　under　any　and

all　conditions。



By　speed　in　this　connection　is　not　meant　high

velocity；　but　that　a　movement；　produced　by　power

expressed　in　some　form；　is　the　sole　and　most　necessary

requisite　to　movement　through　the　air　with

all　heavier…than…air　machines。



If　sufficient　power　can　be　applied　to　an　aeroplane；

surface　is　of　no　consequence；　shape　need

not　be　considered；　and　any　sort　of　contrivance

will　move　through　the　air　horizontally。



CONTROL　OF　THE　DIRECTION　OF　FLIGHT。But　the

control　of　such　a　body；　when　propelled　through

space　by　force　alone；　is　a　different　matter。　To

change　the　machine　from　a　straight　path　to　a

curved　one；　means　that　it　must　be　acted　upon　by

some　external　force。



We　have　explained　that　power　is　something

which　is　inherent　in　the　thing　itself。　Now；　in　order

that　there　may　be　a　change　imparted　to　a

moving　mass；　advantage　must　be　taken　of　the　medium

through　which　it　moves；the　atmosphere。



VERTICAL　CONTROL　PLANES。If　vertically…arranged

planes　are　provided；　either　fore　or　aft　of

the　machine；　or　at　both　ends；　the　angles　of　incidence

may　be　such　as　to　cause　the　machine　to

turn　from　its　straight　course。



In　practice；　therefore；　since　it　is　difficult　to　supply

sufficient　power　to　a　machine　to　keep　it　in　motion

horizontally；　at　all　times；　aeroplanes　are　provided

with　supporting　surfaces；　and　this　aid　in

holding　it　up　grows　less　and　less　as　its　speed　increases。



But；　however　strong　the　power；　or　great　the

speed；　its　control　from　side　to　side　is　not　dependent

on　the　power　of　the　engine；　or　the　speed

at　which　it　travels　through　the　air。



Here　the　size　of　the　vertical　planes；　and　their

angles；　are　the　only　factors　to　be　considered；　and

these　questions　will　be　considered　in　their　proper

places。









CHAPTER　III



THE　FORM　OR　SHAPE　OF　FLYING　MACHINES





EVERY　investigator；　experimenter；　and　scientist；

who　has　given　the　subject　of　flight　study；　proceeds

on　the　theory　that　in　order　to　fly　man　must

copy　nature；　and　make　the　machine　similar　to　the

type　so　provided。



THE　THEORY　OF　COPYING　NATURE。If　such　is　the

case　then　it　is　pertinent　to　inquire　which　bird　is

the　proper　example　to　use　for　mechanical　flight。

We　have　shown　that　they　differ　so　radically　in

every　essential；　that　what　would　be　correct　in　one

thing　would　be　entirely　wrong　in　another。



The　bi…plane　is　certainly　not　a　true　copy。　The

only　thing　in　the　Wright　machine　which　in　any

way　resembles　the　bird's　wing；　is　the　rounded　end

of　the　planes；　and　judging　from　other　machines；

which　have　square　ends；　this　slight　similarity　does

not　contribute　to　its　stability　or　otherwise　help

the　structure。



The　monoplane；　which　is　much　nearer　the　bird

type；　has　also　sounded　wing　ends；　made　not　so

much　for　the　purpose　of　imitating　the　wing　of　the

bird；　as　for　structural　reasons。



HULLS　OF　VESSELS。If　some　marine　architect

should　come　forward　and　assert　that　he　intended

to　follow　nature　by　making　a　boat　with　a　hull　of

the　shape　or　outline　of　a　duck；　or　other　swimming

fowl；　he　would　be　laughed　at；　and　justly　so；　because

the　lines　of　vessels　which　are　most　efficient

are　not　made　like　those　of　a　duck　or　other　swimming

creatures。



MAN　DOES　NOT　COPY　NATURE。Look　about　you；

and　see　how　many　mechanical　devices　follow　the

forms　laid　down　by　nature；　or　in　what　respect

man　uses　the　types　which　nature　provides　in　devising

the　many　inventions　which　ingenuity　has

brought　forth。



PRINCIPLES　ESSENTIAL；　NOT　FORMS。It　is　essential

that　man　shall　follow　nature's　laws。　He　cannot

evade　the　principles　on　which　the　operations

of　mechanism　depend；　but　in　doing　so　he　has；　in

nearly　every　instance；　departed　from　the　form

which　nature　has　suggested；　and　made　the　machine

irrespective　of　nature's　type。



Let　us　consider　some　of　these　striking　differences

to　illustrate　this　fact。　Originally　pins　were

stuck　upon　a　paper　web　by　hand；　and　placed　in

rows；　equidistant　from　each　other。　This　necessitates

the　cooperative　function　of　the　fingers　and

the　eye。　An　expert　pin　sticker　could　thus　assemble

from　four　to　five　thousand　pins　a　day。



The　first　mechanical　pinsticker　placed　over

500；000　pins　a　day　on　the　web；　rejecting　every　bent

or　headless　pin；　and　did　the　work　with　greater

accuracy　than　it　was　possible　to　do　it　by　hand。

There　was　not　the　suggestion　of　an　eye；　or　a　finger

in　the　entire　machine；　to　show　that　nature　furnished

the　type。



NATURE　NOT　THE　GUIDE　AS　TO　FORMS。Nature

does　not　furnish　a　wheel　in　any　of　its　mechanical

expressions。　If　man　followed　nature's　form

in　the　building　of　the　locomotive；　it　would　move

along　on　four　legs　like　an　elephant。　Curiously

enough；　one　of　the　first　road　wagons　had　〃push

legs；〃an　instance　where　the　mechanic　tried　to

copy　nature；and　failed。



THE　PROPELLER　TYPE。The　well　known　propeller

is　a　type　of　wheel　which　has　no　prototype　in

nature。　It　is　maintained　that　the　tail　of　a　fish

in　its　movement　suggested　the　propeller；　but　the

latter　is　a　long　departure　from　it。



The　Venetian　rower；　who　stands　at　the　stern；

and　with　a　long…bladed　oar；　fulcrumed　to　the

boat's　extremity；　in　making　his　graceful　lateral

oscillations；　simulates　the　propelling　motion　of

the　tail　in　an　absolutely　perfect　manner；　but　it　is

not　a　propeller；　by　any　means　comparable　to　the

kind　mounted　on　a　shaft；　and　revoluble。



How　much　more　efficient　are　the　spirally…for