aeroplanes-第19章

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propeller；　gives　a　pull　of　less　than　eight　pounds

for　every　horse　power　exerted。



FOOT　POUNDS。The　work　produced　by　a　motor

is　calculated　in　Foot　Pounds。　If　550　pounds

should　be　lifted；　or　pulled；　one　foot　in　one　second

of　time；　it　would　be　equal　to　one　horse　power。



But　here　we　have　a　case　where　one　horse　power

pulls　only　eight　pounds；　a　distance　of　one　foot

within　one　second　of　time；　and　we　have　utilized

less　than　one　sixty…fifth　of　the　actual　energy　produced。



SMALL　AMOUNT　OF　POWER　AVAILABLE。This　is

due　to　two　things：　First；　the　exceeding　lightness

of　the　air；　and　its　great　elasticity；　and；　second；

the　difficulty　of　making　a　surface　which；　when　it

strikes　the　air；　will　get　a　sufficient　grip　to　effect

a　proper　pull。



Now　it　must　be　obvious；　that　where　only　such

a　small　amount　of　energy　can　be　made　available；

in　a　medium　as　elusive　as　air；　the　least　change；　or

form；　of　the　propeller；　must　have　an　important

bearing　in　the　general　results。



HIGH　PROPELLER　SPEED　IMPORTANT。Furthermore；

all　things　considered；　high　speed　is　important

in　the　rotation　of　the　propeller；　up　to　a　certain

point；　beyond　which　the　pull　decreases　in

proportion　to　the　speed。　High　speed　makes　a

vacuum　behind　the　blade　and　thus　decreases　the

effective　pull　of　the　succeeding　blade。



WIDTH　AND　PITCH　OF　BLADES。If　the　blade　is

too　wide　the　speed　of　the　engine　is　cut　down　to　a

point　where　it　cannot　exert　the　proper　energy；　if

the　pitch　is　very　small　then　it　must　turn　further　to

get　the　same　thrust；　so　that　the　relation　of　diameter；

pitch　and　speed；　are　three　problems　far　from

being　solved。



It　may　be　a　question　whether　the　propeller　form；

as　we　now　know　it；　is　anything　like　the　true　or

ultimate　shape；　which　will　some　day　be　discovered。



EFFECT　OF　INCREASING　PROPELLER　PULL。If　the

present　pull　could　be　doubled　what　a　wonderful

revolution　would　take　place　in　aerial　navigation；

and　if　it　were　possible　to　get　only　a　quarter　of

the　effective　pull　of　an　engine；　the　results　would

be　so　stupendous　that　the　present　method　of　flying

would　seem　like　child's　play　in　comparison。



It　is　in　this　very　matter；the　application　of

the　power；　that　the　bird；　and　other　flying　creatures

so　far　excel　what　man　has　done。　Calculations

made　with　birds　as　samples；　show　that　many

of　them　are　able　to　fly　with　such　a　small　amount

of　power　that；　if　the　same　energy　should　be　applied

to　a　flying　machine；　it　would　scarcely　drive

it　along　the　ground。



DISPOSITION　OF　THE　PLANES。The　second　factor

is　the　disposition　or　arrangement　of　the　planes

with　relation　to　the　weight。　Let　us　illustrate　this

with　a　concrete　example：



We　have　an　aeroplane　with　a　sustaining　surface

of　300　square　feet　which　weighs　900　pounds；

or　30　pounds　per　square　foot　of　surface。



DIFFERENT　SPEEDS　WITH　SAME　POWER。Now；　we

may　be　able　to　do　two　things　with　an　airship　under

those　conditions。　It　may　be　propelled　through

the　air　thirty　miles　an　hour；　or　sixty　miles；　with

the　expenditure　of　the　same　power。



An　automobile；　if　propelled　at　sixty；　instead　of

thirty　miles　an　hour；　would　require　an　additional

power　in　doing　so；　but　an　airship　acts　differently；

within　certain　limitations。



When　it　is　first　set　in　motion　its　effective　pull

may　not　be　equal　to　four　pounds　for　each　horse

power；　due　to　the　slow　speed　of　the　propeller；　and

also　owing　to　the　great　angle　of　incidence　which

resists　the　forward　movement　of　the　ship。



INCREASE　OF　SPEED　ADDS　TO　RESISTANCE。Finally；

as　speed　increases；　the　angle　of　the　planes

decrease；　resistance　is　less；　and　up　to　a　certain

point　the　pull　of　the　propeller　increases；　but　beyond

that　the　vacuum　behind　the　blades　becomes

so　great　as　to　bring　down　the　pull；　and　there　is

thus　a　balance；a　sort　of　mutual　governing　motion

which；　together；　determine　the　ultimate　speed

of　the　aeroplane。



HOW　POWER　DECREASES　WITH　SPEED。If　now；

with　the　same　propeller；　the　speed　should　be

doubled；　the　ship　would　go　no　faster；　because　the

bite　of　the　propeller　on　the　air　would　be　ineffective；

hence　it　will　be　seen　that　it　is　not　the　amount

of　power　in　itself；　that　determines　the　speed；　but

the　shape　of　the　propeller；　which　must　be　so　made

that　it　will　be　most　effective　at　the　speed　required

for　the　ship。



While　that　is　true　when　speed　is　the　matter　of

greatest　importance；　it　is　not　the　case　where　it　is

desired　to　effect　a　launching。　In　that　case　the

propeller　must　be　made　so　that　its　greatest　pull

will　be　at　a　slow　speed。　This　means　a　wider

blade；　and　a　greater　pitch；　and　a　comparatively

greater　pull　at　a　slow　speed。



No　such　consideration　need　be　given　to　an　automobile。

The　constant　accretion　of　power　adds

to　its　speed。　In　flying　machines　the　aviator　must

always　consider　some　companion　factor　which

must　be　consulted。



HOW　TO　CALCULATE　THE　POWER　APPLIED。In　a

previous　chapter　reference　was　made　to　a　plane

at　an　angle　of　forty…five　degrees；　to　which　two

scales　were　attached；　one　to　get　its　horizontal　pull；

or　drift；　and　the　other　its　vertical　pull；　or　lift。



PULLING　AGAINST　AN　ANGLE。Let　us　take　the

same　example　in　our　aeroplane。　Assuming　that

it　weighs　900　pounds；　and　that　the　angle　of　the

planes　is　forty…five　degrees。　If　we　suppose　that

the　air　beneath　the　plane　is　a　solid；　and　frictionless；

and　a　pair　of　scales　should　draw　it　up　the　incline；

the　pull　in　doing　so　would　be　one…half　of　its

weight；　or　450　pounds。



It　must　be　obvious；　therefore；　that　its　force；　in

moving　downwardly；　along　the　surface　A；　Fig。　60；

would　be　450　pounds。



The　incline　thus　shown　has　thereon　a　weight　B；

mounted　on　wheels　a；　and　the　forwardly…projecting

cord　represents　the　power；　or　propeller　pull；

which　must；　therefore；　exert　a　force　of　450　pounds

to　keep　it　in　a　stationary　position　against　the　surface

A。



In　such　a　case　the　thrust　along　the　diagonal

line　E　would　be　900　pounds；　being　the　composition

of　the　two　forces　pulling　along　the　lines　D；　F。



THE　HORIZONTAL　AND　VERTICAL　PULL。Now　it

must　be　obvious；　that　if　the　incline　takes　half　of

the　weight　while　it　is　being　drawn　forwardly；　in

the　line　of　D；　if　we　had　a　propeller　drawing　along

that　line；　which　has　a　pull　of　450　pounds；　it　would

maintain　the　plane　in　flight；　or；　at　any　rate　hold

it　in　space；　assuming　that　the　air　should　be　moving

past　the　plane。



_Fig。　60。　Horizontal　and　Vertical　pull。_



The　table　of　lift　and　drift　gives　a　fairly　accurate

method　of　determining　this　factor；　and　we　refer　to

the　chapter　on　that　subject　which　will　show　the

manner　of　making　the　calculations。



THE　POWER　MOUNTING。More　time　and　labor

has　been　wasted；　in　airship　experiments；　in　poor

motor　mounting；　than　in　any　other　direction。

This　is　especially　true　where　two　propellers　are

used；　or　where　the　construction　is　such　that　the

propeller　is　mounted　some　distance　from　the　motor。



SECURING　THE　PROPELLER　TO　THE　SHAFT。But

even　where　the　propeller　is　mounted　on　the　engine

shaft；　too　little　care　is　exercised　to　fix　it　securely。

The　vibratory　character　of　the　mounting

makes　this　a　matter　of　first　importance。　If　there

is　a　solid　base　a　poorly　fixed　propeller　will　hold

much　longer；　but　it　is　the　extreme　vibration　that

causes　the　propeller　fastening　to　give　way。



VIBRATIONS。If　experimenters　realized　that　an

insecure；　shaking；　or　weaving　bed　would　cause　a

loss　of　from　ten　to　fifteen　per　cent。　in　the　pull　of

the　propeller；　more　care　and　attention　would　be

given　to　this　part　of　the　structure。



WEAKNESSES　IN　MOUNTING。The　general　weaknesses

to　which　attention　should　be　directed　are；

first；　the　insecure　attachment　of　the　propeller　to

the　shaft；　second；　the　liability　of　the　base　to

weave；　or　permit　of　a　torsional　movement；　third；

improper　bracing　of　the　base　to　the　main　body　of

the　aeroplane。



If　the　power　is　transferred　from　the　cylinder

to　the　engine　shaft　where　it　could　de