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military matters。  Both of them are widely distributed; so I will 

not discuss them here。〃  But as we go further back; serious 

difficulties begin to arise。  The salient fact which has to be 

faced is that the TSO CHUAN; the greatest contemporary record; 

makes no mention whatsoever of Sun Wu; either as a general or as 

a writer。  It is natural; in view of this awkward circumstance; 

that many scholars should not only cast doubt on the story of Sun 

Wu as given in the SHIH CHI; but even show themselves frankly 

skeptical as to the existence of the man at all。  The most 

powerful presentment of this side of the case is to be found in 

the following disposition by Yeh Shui…hsin: '17' 



       It is stated in Ssu…ma Ch‘ien's history that Sun Wu was 

  a native of the Ch‘i State; and employed by Wu; and that in 

  the reign of Ho Lu he crushed Ch‘u; entered Ying; and was a 

  great general。  But in Tso's Commentary no Sun Wu appears at 

  all。  It is true that Tso's Commentary need not contain 

  absolutely everything that other histories contain。  But Tso 

  has not omitted to mention vulgar plebeians and hireling 

  ruffians such as Ying K‘ao…shu; '18' Ts‘ao Kuei;  '19';  Chu 

  Chih…wu and Chuan She…chu '20'。  In the case of Sun Wu; whose 

  fame and achievements were so brilliant; the omission is much 

  more glaring。  Again; details are given; in their due order; 

  about his contemporaries Wu Yuan and the Minister P‘ei。  '21'  

  Is it credible that Sun Wu alone should have been passed 

  over?

       In point of literary style; Sun Tzu's work belongs to 

  the same school as KUAN TZU; '22' LIU T‘AO; '23' and the YUEH 

  YU '24' and may have been the production of some private 

  scholar living towards the end of the 〃Spring and Autumn〃 or 

  the beginning of the 〃Warring States〃 period。 '25'  The story 

  that his precepts were actually applied by the Wu State; is 

  merely the outcome of big talk on the part of his followers。

       From the flourishing period of the Chou dynasty '26' 

  down to the time of the 〃Spring and Autumn;〃 all military 

  commanders were statesmen as well; and the class of 

  professional generals; for conducting external campaigns; did 

  not then exist。  It was not until the period of the 〃Six 

  States〃 '27' that this custom changed。  Now although Wu was 

  an uncivilized State; it is conceivable that Tso should have 

  left unrecorded the fact that Sun Wu was a great general and 

  yet held no civil office?  What we are told; therefore; about 

  Jang…chu '28' and Sun Wu; is not authentic matter;  but the 

  reckless fabrication of theorizing pundits。  The story of Ho 

  Lu's experiment on the women; in particular; is utterly 

  preposterous and incredible。



     Yeh Shui…hsin represents Ssu…ma Ch‘ien as having said that 

Sun Wu crushed Ch‘u and entered Ying。  This is not quite correct。  

No doubt the impression left on the reader's mind is that he at 

least shared in these exploits。  The fact may or may not be 

significant; but it is nowhere explicitly stated in the SHIH CHI 

either that Sun Tzu was general on the occasion of the taking of 

Ying; or that he even went there at all。  Moreover; as we know 

that Wu Yuan and Po P‘ei both took part in the expedition; and 

also that its success was largely due to the dash and enterprise 

of Fu Kai; Ho Lu's younger brother; it is not easy to see how yet 

another general could have played a very prominent part in the 

same campaign。

     Ch‘en Chen…sun of the Sung dynasty has the note: 



       Military writers look upon Sun Wu as the father of their 

  art。  But the fact that he does not appear in the TSO CHUAN; 

  although he is said to have served under Ho Lu King of Wu; 

  makes it uncertain what period he really belonged to。



He also says: 



       The works of Sun Wu and Wu Ch‘i may be of genuine 

  antiquity。



     It is noticeable that both Yeh Shui…hsin and Ch‘en Chen…sun; 

while rejecting the personality of Sun Wu as he figures in Ssu…ma 

Ch‘ien's history; are inclined to accept the date traditionally 

assigned to the work which passes under his name。  The author of 

the HSU LU fails to appreciate this distinction; and consequently 

his bitter attack on Ch‘en Chen…sun really misses its mark。  He 

makes one of two points; however; which certainly tell in favor 

of the high antiquity of our 〃13 chapters。〃  〃Sun Tzu;〃 he says; 

〃must have lived in the age of Ching Wang '519…476'; because he 

is frequently plagiarized in subsequent works of the Chou; Ch‘in 

and Han dynasties。〃  The two most shameless offenders in this 

respect are Wu Ch‘i and Huai…nan Tzu; both of them important 

historical personages in their day。  The former lived only a 

century after the alleged date of Sun Tzu; and his death is known 

to have taken place in 381 B。C。  It was to him; according to Liu 

Hsiang;  that Tseng Shen delivered the TSO CHUAN; which had been 

entrusted to him by its author。  '29'   Now the fact that 

quotations from the ART OF WAR; acknowledged or otherwise; are to 

be found in so many authors of different epochs; establishes a 

very strong anterior to them all;  in other words; that Sun 

Tzu's treatise was already in existence towards the end of the 

5th century B。C。  Further proof of Sun Tzu's antiquity is 

furnished by the archaic or wholly obsolete meanings attaching to 

a number of the words he uses。  A list of these; which might 

perhaps be extended; is given in the HSU LU; and though some of 

the interpretations are doubtful; the main argument is hardly 

affected thereby。  Again; it must not be forgotten that Yeh Shui…

hsin; a scholar and critic of the first rank; deliberately 

pronounces the style of the 13 chapters to belong to the early 

part of the fifth century。  Seeing that he is actually engaged in 

an attempt to disprove the existence of Sun Wu himself; we may be 

sure that he would not have hesitated to assign the work to a 

later date had he not honestly believed the contrary。  And it is 

precisely on such a point that the judgment of an educated 

Chinaman will carry most weight。  Other internal evidence is not 

far to seek。  Thus in XIII。 ss。 1; there is an unmistakable 

allusion to the ancient system of land…tenure which had already 

passed away by the time of Mencius; who was anxious to see it 

revived in a modified form。 '30'  The only warfare Sun Tzu knows 

is that carried on between the various feudal princes; in which 

armored chariots play a large part。  Their use seems to have 

entirely died out before the end of the Chou dynasty。  He speaks 

as a man of Wu; a state which ceased to exist as early as 473 

B。C。  On this I shall touch presently。



     But once refer the work to the 5th century or earlier;  and 

the chances of its being other than a bona fide production are 

sensibly diminished。  The great age of forgeries did not come 

until long after。  That it should have been forged in the period 

immediately following 473 is particularly unlikely; for no one; 

as a rule; hastens to identify himself with a lost cause。  As for 

Yeh Shui…hsin's theory; that the author was a literary recluse; 

that seems to me quite untenable。  If one thing is more apparent 

than another after reading the maxims of Sun Tzu; it is that 

their essence has been distilled from a large store of personal 

observation and experience。  They reflect the mind not only of a 

born strategist; gifted with a rare faculty of generalization; 

but also of a practical soldier closely acquainted with the 

military conditions of his time。  To say nothing of the fact that 

these sayings have been accepted and endorsed by all the greatest 

captains of Chinese history; they offer a combination of 

freshness and sincerity; acuteness and common sense; which quite 

excludes the idea that they were artificially concocted in the 

study。  If we admit; then; that the 13 chapters were the 

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