the origins of contemporary france-5-第43章

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organs　and　human　societies　in　his　〃Principles　of　Biology〃　and

〃Principles　of　Sociology。〃　I　have　attempted　here　to　show　the　three

parallel　branches　of　its　consequences；　and；　again；　their　common　root；

a　constitutive　and　primordial　property　inherent　in　every

instrumentality。



＇2＇　Cf。　〃The　Revolution；〃　III。；　book　VI。；　ch。　2　The　encroachments　of

the　State　and　their　effect　on　individuals　is　there　treated。　Here；　the

question　is　their　effects　on　corporations。　Read；　on　the　same　subject；

〃Gladstone　on　Church　and　State；〃　by　Macaulay；　and　〃The　Man　versus　the

State；〃　by　Herbert　Spencer；　two　essays　in　which　the　close　reasoning

and　abundance　of　illustrations　are　admirable。



＇3＇　〃The　Revolution；〃　III；　346。　（Laffont　II。　p　258。）



＇4＇　　Ibid。；　III。　284　Laff。　213。



＇5＇　〃The　Revolution；〃　III。；　353；　416。　（Laffont　II。　notes　pp　262　and

305　to　308。）



＇6＇　〃The　Ancient　Régime；〃　64；　65；　76；　77；　120；　121；　292。　（Laffont　I。

pp。　52…53；　60…61；　92　to　94；　218　to　219。）



＇7＇　〃The　Revolution；〃　I。；　177　and　following　pages。　（Laffont　I；　pp。　438

to　445。）



＇8＇　The　essays　of　Herbert　Spencer　furnish　examples　for　England　under

the　title　of　〃Over…legislation　and　Representative　government。〃

Examples　for　France　may　be　found　in　〃Liberté　du　Travail；〃　by　Charles

Dunoyer　（1845）。　This　work　anticipates　most　of　the　ideas　of　Herbert

Spencer；　lacking　only　the　physiological　〃illustrations。〃









CHAPTER　III。　The　New　Government　Organization。



I。

Precedents　of　the　new　organization。　…　In　practical　operation。　…

Anterior　usurpations　of　the　public　power。　…　Spontaneous　bodies　under

the　Ancient　Regime　and　during　the　Revolution。　…　Ruin　and　discredit　of

their　supports。　…　The　central　power　their　sole　surviving　dependence。　…



Unfortunately；　in　France　at　the　end　of　the　eighteenth　century　the　bent

was　taken　and　the　wrong　bent。　For　three　centuries　and　more　the　public

power　had　increasingly　violated　and　discredited　spontaneous　bodies：



Sometimes　it　had　mutilated　them　and　decapitated　them；　for　example；　it

had　suppressed　provincial　governments　（états）　over　three…quarters　of

the　territory；　in　all　the　electoral　districts；　nothing　remained　of　the

old　province　but　its　name　and　an　administrative　circumscription。



Sometimes；　without　mutilating　the　corporate　body　it　had　upset　and

deformed　it；　or　dislocated　and　disjointed　it。　…　So　that　in　the　towns；

through　changes　made　in　old　democratic　constitutions；　through

restrictions　put　upon　electoral　rights　and　repeated　sales　of　municipal

offices；＇1＇　it　had　handed　over　municipal　authority　to　a　narrow

oligarchy　of　bourgeois　families；　privileged　at　the　expense　of　the

taxpayer；　half　separated　from　the　main　body　of　the　public；　disliked　by

the　lower　classes；　and　no　longer　supported　by　the　confidence　or

deference　of　the　community。　And　in　the　parish　and　in　the　rural　canton；

it　had　taken　away　from　the　noble　his　office　of　resident　protector　and

hereditary　patron；　reducing　him　to　the　odious　position　of　a　mere

creditor；　and；　if　he　were　a　man　of　the　court；　to　the　yet　worse

position　of　an　absentee　creditor。＇2＇　…　So　that　in　the　parish　and　in

the　rural　canton；　it　had　taken　away　from　the　noble　his　office　of

resident　protector　and　hereditary　patron；　reducing　him　to　the　odious

position　of　a　mere　creditor；　and；　if　he　were　a　man　of　the　court；　to

the　yet　worse　position　of　an　absentee　creditor。＇3＇　Thus；　as　to　the

clergy；　it　had　almost　separated　the　head　from　the　trunk　by　superposing

（through　the　concordat）　a　staff　of　gentleman　prelates；　rich；

ostentatious；　unemployed；　and　skeptical；　upon　an　army　of　plain；　poor；

laborious；　and　believing　curates。＇4＇



Finally；　it　had；　through　a　protection　as　untimely　as　it　was

aggressive；　sometimes　conferred　on　the　corporation　oppressive

privileges　which　rendered　it　offensive　and　mischievous；　or　else

fossilized　in　an　obsolete　form　which　paralyzed　its　action　or　corrupted

its　service。　Such　was　the　case　with　the　corporations　of　crafts　and

industries　to　which；　in　consideration　of　financial　aid；　it　had

conceded　monopolies　onerous　to　the　consumer　and　a　clog　on　industrial

enterprises。　Such　was　the　case　with　the　Catholic　Church　to　which；

every　five　years；　it　granted；　in　exchange　for　its　voluntary　gift　（of

money）；　cruel　favors　or　obnoxious　prerogatives；　the　prolonged

persecution　of　Protestants；　the　censorship　of　intellectual

speculation；　and　the　right　of　controlling　schools　and　education。＇5＇

Such　was　the　case　with　the　universities　benumbed　by　routine；　with

latest　provincial　〃ètats；〃　constituted　in　1789；　as　in　1489。　Such　was

the　case　with　noble　families　subjected　by　law　to　the　antique　system　of

substitutions　and　of　primogeniture；　that　is　to　say；　to　social

constraint　which；　devised　long　ago　for　private　as　well　as　for　public

interest　in　order　to　secure　the　transmission　of　local　patronage　and

political　power。　This　system；　however；　became　useless　and　corrupting；

fecund　in　pernicious　vanities；＇6＇　in　detestable　calculations；　domestic

tyrannies；　forced　vocations；　and　private　bickering；　from　the　time　when

the　nobles；　become　frequenters　of　the　court；　had　lost　political　power

and　renounced　local　patronage。



Thus　deprived　of；　or　diverted　from；　their　purpose；　the　corporate

bodies　had　become　unrecognizable　under　the　crust　of　the　abuses　which

disfigured　them。　Nobody；　except　a　Montesquieu；　could　comprehend　why

they　should　exist；　on　the　approach　of　the　Revolution；　they　seemed；　not

organs；　but　outgrowths；　deformities；　and；　so　to　say；　superannuated

monstrosities。　Their　historical　and　natural　roots；　their　living　germs

far　below　the　surface；　their　social　necessity；　their　fundamental

utility；　their　possible　usefulness；　were　no　longer　visible。　Only　their

present　inconvenience　was　felt；　people　suffered　by　their　friction　and

burden；　their　lack　of　harmony　and　incoherence　created　dissatisfaction；

annoyance　due　to　their　degeneracy　were　attributed　to　radical　defects；

they　were　judged　to　be　naturally　unsound　and　were　condemned；　in

principle；　because　of　the　deviations　and　laws　which　the　public　power

had　imposed　on　their　development。



Suddenly；　the　public　power；　which　had　produced　the　evil　by　its

intervention；　pretended　to　remove　it　by　a　still　greater　intervention：

in　1789　it　again　intruded　itself　on　corporate　bodies；　not　to　reform

them；　not　restore　each　to　its　proper　channel；　not　to　confine　each　with

proper　limits；　but　to　destroy　them　outright。　Through　a　radical；

universal；　and　extraordinary　amputation；　the　like　of　which　is　not

mentioned　in　history；　with　the　rashness　of　the　theorist　and　the

brutality　of　the　butcher；　the　legislator　extirpated　them　all；　as　far

as　he　could；　even　including　the　family；　while　his　fury　extended　beyond

the　present　into　the　future。　To　legal　abolition　and　total

confiscation；　he　added　the　systematic　hostility　of　his　preventive

laws；　together　with　a　fresh　obstacle　in　the　shape　of　his　new

constructions；　during　three　successive　legislatures＇7＇　he　provided

against　their　future　regeneration；　against　the　permanent　instincts　and

necessities　which　might　one　day　resuscitate　stable　families；　distinct

provinces；　and　an　orthodox　church；　against　artistic；　industrial；

financial；　charitable；　and　educational　corporations；　against　every

spontaneous　and　organized　group；　and　against　every　collective；　local；

or　special　enterprise。　In　place　of　these　he　installed　synthetic　bodies

or　institutions：



*　a　Church　without　believers；

*　schools　without　pupils；

*　hospitals　without　incomes；

*　a　geometrical　hierarchy　of　improvised　powers　in　the　commune；

district；　and　department；



all　badly　organized；　badly　adjusted；　out　of　gear　at　the　start；

overwhelmed　with　political　functions；　as　incapable　of　performing　their

proper　duties　as　their　supplementary　duties；　and；　from　the　very

beginning；　either　powerless　or　mischievous。＇8＇　　Changes　repeatedly

marred　by　arbitrariness　from　above　or　from　below；　set　aside　or

perverted　now　by　the　mob　and　again　by　the　government；　inert　in　the

country；　oppress