the origins of contemporary france-5-第40章

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to　the　end；　in　other　terms；　that　the　myriad　of　large　or　small　local　or

central　pieces　shall　be　determined；　adjusted；　and　coordinated　in　view

of　the　final　and　total　effect　to　which　they　co…operate　nearly　or

remotely。



But；　whether　simple　or　compound；　every　engine　which　does　any　work　is

subject　to　one　condition；　the　better　it　is　suited　to　any　distinct

purpose　the　less　it　is　suited　to　other　purposes；　as　its　perfection

increases；　so　does　its　application　become　limited。　…　Accordingly；　if

there　are　two　distinct　instruments　applied　to　two　distinct　objects；

the　more　perfect　they　are；　each　of　its　kind；　the　more　do　their　domains

become　circumscribed　and　opposed　to　each　other；　as　one　of　them　becomes

more　capable　of　doing　its　own　work　it　becomes　more　incapable　of　doing

the　work　of　the　other；　finally；　neither　can　take　the　place　of　the

other；　and　this　is　true　whatever　the　instrument　may　be；　mechanical；

physiological；　or　social。



At　the　very　lowest　grade　of　human　industry　the　savage　possesses　but

one　tool；　with　his　cutting　or　pointed　bit　of　stone　he　kills；　breaks；

splits；　bores；　saws；　and　carves；　the　instrument　suffices；　in　the　main；

for　all　sorts　of　services。　After　this　come　the　lance；　the　hatchet；　the

hammer；　the　punch；　the　saw；　the　knife；　each　adapted　to　a　distinct

purpose　and　less　efficacious　outside　of　that　purpose：　one　cannot　saw

well　with　a　knife；　and　one　cuts　badly　with　a　saw。　Later；　highly…

perfected　engines　appear；　and；　wholly　special；　the　sewing…machine　and

the　typewriter：　it　is　impossible　to　sew　with　the　typewriter　or　write

with　the　sewing…machine。　…　In　like　manner；　when　at　the　lowest　round　of

the　organic　ladder　the　animal　is　simply　a　shapeless　jelly；　homogeneous

and　viscous；　all　parts　of　it　are　equally　suited　to　all　functions；　the

amoebae；　indifferently　and　by　all　the　cells　of　its　body；　can　walk；

seize；　swallow；　digest；　breathe；　and　circulate　all　its　fluids；　expel

its　waste；　and　propagate　its　species。　A　little　higher　up；　in　fresh…

water　polyp；　the　internal　sac　which　digests　and　the　outer　skin　which

serves　to　envelop　it　can；　if　absolutely　necessary；　change　their

functions；　if　you　turn　the　animal　inside　out　like　a　glove　it　continues

to　live；　its　skin；　become　internal；　fulfills　the　office　of　a　stomach；

its　stomach；　become　external；　fulfills　the　office　of　an　envelope。　But；

the　higher　we　ascend；　the　more　do　the　organs；　complicated　by　the

division　and　subdivision　of　labor；　diverge；　each　to　its　own　side；　and

refuse　to　take　each　other's　place。　The　heart；　with　the　mammal；　is　only

good　for　impelling　the　blood；　while　the　lungs　only　furnish　the　blood

with　oxygen；　one　cannot　possibly　do　the　work　of　the　other；　between　the

two　domains　the　special　structure　of　the　former　and　the　special

structure　of　the　latter　interpose　an　impassable　barrier。　…　In　like

manner；　finally；　at　the　very　bottom　of　the　social　scale　…　lower　down

than　the　Andamans　and　the　Fuegians　…　we　find　a　primitive　stage　of

humanity　in　which　society　consists　wholly　of　a　herd。　In　this　herd

there　is　no　distinct　association　in　view　of　a　distinct　purpose；　there

is　not　even　a　family　…　no　permanent　tie　between　male　and　female；　there

is　simply　a　contact　of　the　sexes。　Gradually；　in　this　herd　of

individuals；　all　equal　and　all　alike；　particular　groups　define

themselves；　take　shape；　and　separate：　we　see　appearing　more　and　more

precise　relationships；　more　and　more　distinct　habitations；　more　and

more　hereditary　homesteads；　fishing；　hunting；　and　war　groups；　and

small　workshops；　if　the　people　is　a　conquering　people；　castes

establish　themselves。　At　length；　we　find　in　this　expanded　and　solidly…

organized　social　body　provinces；　communes；　churches；　hospitals；

schools；　corporate　bodies　and　associations　of　every　species　and

dimension；　temporary　or　permanent；　voluntary　or　involuntary；　in　brief；

a　multitude　of　social　engines　constructed　out　of　human　beings　who；　on

account　of　personal　interest；　habit；　and　constraint；　or　through

inclination；　conscience；　and　generosity；　co…operate　according　to　a

public　or　tacit　statute　in　effecting　in　the　material　or　spiritual

order　of　things　this　or　that　determinate　undertaking。　In　France；　to…

day；　there　are；　besides　the　State；　eighty…six　departments；　thirty…six

thousand　communes；　four　church　bodies；　forty　thousand　parishes；　seven

or　eight　millions　of　families；　millions　of　agricultural；　industrial；

and　commercial　establishments；　hundreds　of　institutions　of　science　and

art；　thousands　of　educational　and　charitable　institutions；　benevolent

and　mutual…aid　societies；　and　others　for　business　or　for　pleasure　by

tens　and　hundreds　and　thousands；　in　short；　innumerable　associations　of

every　kind；　each　with　a　purpose　of　its　own；　and；　like　a　tool　or　a

special　organ；　carrying　out　a　distinct　work。



Now；　each　of　these　associations　so　far　as　it　is　a　tool　or　an　organ　is

subject　to　the　same　law；　the　better　it　is　in　one　direction；　the　more

mediocre　it　is　in　other　directions；　its　special　competency　constitutes

its　general　incompetence。　This　is　why；　among　developed　nations；　no

specialized　organization　can　replace　another　in　a　satisfactory　manner。

〃An　academy　of　painting　which　should　also　be　a　bank　would；　in　all

probability；　exhibit　very　bad　pictures　and　discount　very　bad　bills。　A

gas　company　which　should　also　be　a　kindergarten　would；　we　expect；

light　the　streets　poorly　and　teach　the　children　badly。〃　＇1＇　And　the

reason　is　that　an　instrument；　whatever　it　may　be；　a　mechanical　tool；

or　physiological　organ；　or　human　association；　is　always　a　system　of

pieces　whose　effects　converge　to　a　given　end；　it　matters　little

whether　the　pieces　are　bits　of　wood　and　metal；　as　in　the　tool；　cells

and　fibers；　as　in　the　organ；　souls　and　understandings；　as　in　the

association；　the　essential　thing　is　the　convergence　of　their　effects；

for　the　more　convergent　these　effects；　the　more　efficient　is　the

instrument　in　the　realization　of　its　end。　But；　through　this

convergence；　it　takes　one　direction　exclusively　and　cannot　take　any

other；　it　cannot　operate　at　once　in　two　different　senses；　it　cannot

possibly　turn　to　the　right　and　at　the　same　time　turn　to　the　left。　If

any　social　instrument　devised　for　a　special　service　is　made　to　act

additionally　for　another；　it　will　perform　its　own　office　badly　as　well

the　one　it　usurps。　Of　the　two　works　executed　by　it；　the　first　injures

the　second　and　the　second　injures　the　first　one。　The　end；　ordinarily；

is　the　sacrifice　of　one　to　the　other；　and；　most　frequently；　the

failure　of　both。



II。　Abusive　Government　Intervention。



Application　of　this　law　to　the　public　power。　…　General　effect　of　its

intervention。



Let　us　follow　out　the　effects　of　this　law　when　it　is　the　public　power

which；　beyond　its　principal　and　peculiar　task；　undertakes　a　different

task　and　puts　itself　in　the　place　of　corporate　bodies　to　do　their

work；　when　the　State；　not　content　with　protecting　the　community　and

individuals　against　external　or　internal　oppression；　takes　upon　itself

additionally　the　government　of　churches；　education；　or　charity；　the

direction　of　art；　science；　and　of　commercial；　agricultural；　municipal；

or　domestic　affairs。　…　Undoubtedly；　it　can　intervene　in　all　corporate

bodies　other　than　itself；　it　has　both　the　right　and　the　duty　to

interfere；　it　is　bound　to　do　this　through　its　very　office　as　defender

of　persons　and　property；　to　repress　in　these　bodies　spoliation　and

oppression；　to　compel　in　them　the　observance　of　the　primordial

statute；　charter；　or　contract；　to　maintain　in　the　them　rights　of　each

member　fixed　by　this　statute；　to　decide　according　to　this　statute　all

conflicts　which　may　arise　between　administrators　and　the

administrated；　between　directors　and　stockholders；　between　pastors　and

parishioners；　between　deceased　founders　and　their　living　successors。

In　doing　this；　it　affords　them　its　tribunals；　its　constables；　and　its

gendarmes；　and　it　affords　these　to　them　only　with　full　consent　after

having　looking　into　and　accepted　the　statute。　This；　too；　is　on