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第6章

prior analytics-第6章

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  Similar results will obtain also in particular syllogisms。 For



whenever the negative premiss is both universal and necessary; then



the conclusion will be necessary: but whenever the affirmative premiss



is universal; the negative particular; the conclusion will not be



necessary。 First then let the negative premiss be both universal and



necessary: let it be possible for no B that A should belong to it; and



let A simply belong to some C。 Since the negative statement is



convertible; it will be possible for no A that B should belong to



it: but A belongs to some C; consequently B necessarily does not



belong to some of the Cs。 Again let the affirmative premiss be both



universal and necessary; and let the major premiss be affirmative。



If then A necessarily belongs to all B; but does not belong to some C;



it is clear that B will not belong to some C; but not necessarily。 For



the same terms can be used to demonstrate the point; which were used



in the universal syllogisms。 Nor again; if the negative statement is



necessary but particular; will the conclusion be necessary。 The



point can be demonstrated by means of the same terms。







                                11







  In the last figure when the terms are related universally to the



middle; and both premisses are affirmative; if one of the two is



necessary; then the conclusion will be necessary。 But if one is



negative; the other affirmative; whenever the negative is necessary



the conclusion also will be necessary; but whenever the affirmative is



necessary the conclusion will not be necessary。 First let both the



premisses be affirmative; and let A and B belong to all C; and let



AC be necessary。 Since then B belongs to all C; C also will belong



to some B; because the universal is convertible into the particular:



consequently if A belongs necessarily to all C; and C belongs to



some B; it is necessary that A should belong to some B also。 For B



is under C。 The first figure then is formed。 A similar proof will be



given also if BC is necessary。 For C is convertible with some A:



consequently if B belongs necessarily to all C; it will belong



necessarily also to some A。



  Again let AC be negative; BC affirmative; and let the negative



premiss be necessary。 Since then C is convertible with some B; but A



necessarily belongs to no C; A will necessarily not belong to some B



either: for B is under C。 But if the affirmative is necessary; the



conclusion will not be necessary。 For suppose BC is affirmative and



necessary; while AC is negative and not necessary。 Since then the



affirmative is convertible; C also will belong to some B



necessarily: consequently if A belongs to none of the Cs; while C



belongs to some of the Bs; A will not belong to some of the Bs…but not



of necessity; for it has been proved; in the case of the first figure;



that if the negative premiss is not necessary; neither will the



conclusion be necessary。 Further; the point may be made clear by



considering the terms。 Let the term A be 'good'; let that which B



signifies be 'animal'; let the term C be 'horse'。 It is possible



then that the term good should belong to no horse; and it is necessary



that the term animal should belong to every horse: but it is not



necessary that some animal should not be good; since it is possible



for every animal to be good。 Or if that is not possible; take as the



term 'awake' or 'asleep': for every animal can accept these。



  If; then; the premisses are universal; we have stated when the



conclusion will be necessary。 But if one premiss is universal; the



other particular; and if both are affirmative; whenever the



universal is necessary the conclusion also must be necessary。 The



demonstration is the same as before; for the particular affirmative



also is convertible。 If then it is necessary that B should belong to



all C; and A falls under C; it is necessary that B should belong to



some A。 But if B must belong to some A; then A must belong to some



B: for conversion is possible。 Similarly also if AC should be



necessary and universal: for B falls under C。 But if the particular



premiss is necessary; the conclusion will not be necessary。 Let the



premiss BC be both particular and necessary; and let A belong to all



C; not however necessarily。 If the proposition BC is converted the



first figure is formed; and the universal premiss is not necessary;



but the particular is necessary。 But when the premisses were thus; the



conclusion (as we proved was not necessary: consequently it is not



here either。 Further; the point is clear if we look at the terms。



Let A be waking; B biped; and C animal。 It is necessary that B



should belong to some C; but it is possible for A to belong to C;



and that A should belong to B is not necessary。 For there is no



necessity that some biped should be asleep or awake。 Similarly and



by means of the same terms proof can be made; should the proposition



AC be both particular and necessary。



  But if one premiss is affirmative; the other negative; whenever



the universal is both negative and necessary the conclusion also



will be necessary。 For if it is not possible that A should belong to



any C; but B belongs to some C; it is necessary that A should not



belong to some B。 But whenever the affirmative proposition is



necessary; whether universal or particular; or the negative is



particular; the conclusion will not be necessary。 The proof of this by



reduction will be the same as before; but if terms are wanted; when



the universal affirmative is necessary; take the terms



'waking'…'animal'…'man'; 'man' being middle; and when the



affirmative is particular and necessary; take the terms



'waking'…'animal'…'white': for it is necessary that animal should



belong to some white thing; but it is possible that waking should



belong to none; and it is not necessary that waking should not



belong to some animal。 But when the negative proposition being



particular is necessary; take the terms 'biped'; 'moving'; 'animal';



'animal' being middle。



                                12







  It is clear then that a simple conclusion is not reached unless both



premisses are simple assertions; but a necessary conclusion is



possible although one only of the premisses is necessary。 But in



both cases; whether the syllogisms are affirmative or negative; it



is necessary that one premiss should be similar to the conclusion。 I



mean by 'similar'; if the conclusion is a simple assertion; the



premiss must be simple; if the conclusion is necessary; the premiss



must be necessary。 Consequently this also is clear; that the



conclusion will be neither necessary nor simple unless a necessary



or simple premiss is assumed。







                                13







  Perhaps enough has been said about the proof of necessity; how it



comes about and how it differs from the proof of a simple statement。



We proceed to discuss that which is possible; when and how and by what



means it can be proved。 I use the terms 'to be possible' and 'the



possible' of that which is not necessary but; being assumed; results



in nothing impossible。 We say indeed ambiguously of the necessary that



it is possible。 But that my definition of the possible is correct is



clear from the phrases by which we deny or on the contrary affirm



possibility。 For the expressions 'it is not possible to belong'; 'it



is impossible to belong'; and 'it is necessary not to belong' are



either identical or follow from one another; consequently their



opposites also; 'it is possible to belong'; 'it is

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