prior analytics-第23章
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included in A; then E will be included in A。 Similarly if the
syllogism is negative。 In the second figure it will be possible to
infer only that which is subordinate to the conclusion; e。g。 if A
belongs to no B and to all C; we conclude that B belongs to no C。 If
then D is subordinate to C; clearly B does not belong to it。 But
that B does not belong to what is subordinate to A is not clear by
means of the syllogism。 And yet B does not belong to E; if E is
subordinate to A。 But while it has been proved through the syllogism
that B belongs to no C; it has been assumed without proof that B
does not belong to A; consequently it does not result through the
syllogism that B does not belong to E。
But in particular syllogisms there will be no necessity of inferring
what is subordinate to the conclusion (for a syllogism does not result
when this premiss is particular); but whatever is subordinate to the
middle term may be inferred; not however through the syllogism; e。g。
if A belongs to all B and B to some C。 Nothing can be inferred about
that which is subordinate to C; something can be inferred about that
which is subordinate to B; but not through the preceding syllogism。
Similarly in the other figures。 That which is subordinate to the
conclusion cannot be proved; the other subordinate can be proved; only
not through the syllogism; just as in the universal syllogisms what is
subordinate to the middle term is proved (as we saw) from a premiss
which is not demonstrated: consequently either a conclusion is not
possible in the case of universal syllogisms or else it is possible
also in the case of particular syllogisms。
2
It is possible for the premisses of the syllogism to be true; or
to be false; or to be the one true; the other false。 The conclusion is
either true or false necessarily。 From true premisses it is not
possible to draw a false conclusion; but a true conclusion may be
drawn from false premisses; true however only in respect to the
fact; not to the reason。 The reason cannot be established from false
premisses: why this is so will be explained in the sequel。
First then that it is not possible to draw a false conclusion from
true premisses; is made clear by this consideration。 If it is
necessary that B should be when A is; it is necessary that A should
not be when B is not。 If then A is true; B must be true: otherwise
it will turn out that the same thing both is and is not at the same
time。 But this is impossible。 Let it not; because A is laid down as
a single term; be supposed that it is possible; when a single fact
is given; that something should necessarily result。 For that is not
possible。 For what results necessarily is the conclusion; and the
means by which this comes about are at the least three terms; and
two relations of subject and predicate or premisses。 If then it is
true that A belongs to all that to which B belongs; and that B belongs
to all that to which C belongs; it is necessary that A should belong
to all that to which C belongs; and this cannot be false: for then the
same thing will belong and not belong at the same time。 So A is
posited as one thing; being two premisses taken together。 The same
holds good of negative syllogisms: it is not possible to prove a false
conclusion from true premisses。
But from what is false a true conclusion may be drawn; whether
both the premisses are false or only one; provided that this is not
either of the premisses indifferently; if it is taken as wholly false:
but if the premiss is not taken as wholly false; it does not matter
which of the two is false。 (1) Let A belong to the whole of C; but
to none of the Bs; neither let B belong to C。 This is possible; e。g。
animal belongs to no stone; nor stone to any man。 If then A is taken
to belong to all B and B to all C; A will belong to all C;
consequently though both the premisses are false the conclusion is
true: for every man is an animal。 Similarly with the negative。 For
it is possible that neither A nor B should belong to any C; although A
belongs to all B; e。g。 if the same terms are taken and man is put as
middle: for neither animal nor man belongs to any stone; but animal
belongs to every man。 Consequently if one term is taken to belong to
none of that to which it does belong; and the other term is taken to
belong to all of that to which it does not belong; though both the
premisses are false the conclusion will be true。 (2) A similar proof
may be given if each premiss is partially false。
(3) But if one only of the premisses is false; when the first
premiss is wholly false; e。g。 AB; the conclusion will not be true; but
if the premiss BC is wholly false; a true conclusion will be possible。
I mean by 'wholly false' the contrary of the truth; e。g。 if what
belongs to none is assumed to belong to all; or if what belongs to all
is assumed to belong to none。 Let A belong to no B; and B to all C。 If
then the premiss BC which I take is true; and the premiss AB is wholly
false; viz。 that A belongs to all B; it is impossible that the
conclusion should be true: for A belonged to none of the Cs; since A
belonged to nothing to which B belonged; and B belonged to all C。
Similarly there cannot be a true conclusion if A belongs to all B; and
B to all C; but while the true premiss BC is assumed; the wholly false
premiss AB is also assumed; viz。 that A belongs to nothing to which
B belongs: here the conclusion must be false。 For A will belong to all
C; since A belongs to everything to which B belongs; and B to all C。
It is clear then that when the first premiss is wholly false;
whether affirmative or negative; and the other premiss is true; the
conclusion cannot be true。
(4) But if the premiss is not wholly false; a true conclusion is
possible。 For if A belongs to all C and to some B; and if B belongs to
all C; e。g。 animal to every swan and to some white thing; and white to
every swan; then if we take as premisses that A belongs to all B;
and B to all C; A will belong to all C truly: for every swan is an
animal。 Similarly if the statement AB is negative。 For it is
possible that A should belong to some B and to no C; and that B should
belong to all C; e。g。 animal to some white thing; but to no snow;
and white to all snow。 If then one should assume that A belongs to
no B; and B to all C; then will belong to no C。
(5) But if the premiss AB; which is assumed; is wholly true; and the
premiss BC is wholly false; a true syllogism will be possible: for
nothing prevents A belonging to all B and to all C; though B belongs
to no C; e。g。 these being species of the same genus which are not
subordinate one to the other: for animal belongs both to horse and
to man; but horse to no man。 If then it is assumed that A belongs to
all B and B to all C; the conclusion will be true; although the
premiss BC is wholly false。 Similarly if the premiss AB is negative。
For it is possible that A should belong neither to any B nor to any C;
and that B should not belong to any C; e。g。 a genus to species of
another genus: for animal belongs neither to music nor to the art of
healing; nor does music belong to the art of healing。 If then it is
assumed that A belongs to no B; and B to all C; the conclusion will be
true。
(6) And if the premiss BC is not wholly false but in part only; even
so the conclusion may be true。 For nothing prevents A belonging to the
whole of B and of C; while B belongs to some C; e。g。 a genus to its
species an