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第23章

prior analytics-第23章

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included in A; then E will be included in A。 Similarly if the



syllogism is negative。 In the second figure it will be possible to



infer only that which is subordinate to the conclusion; e。g。 if A



belongs to no B and to all C; we conclude that B belongs to no C。 If



then D is subordinate to C; clearly B does not belong to it。 But



that B does not belong to what is subordinate to A is not clear by



means of the syllogism。 And yet B does not belong to E; if E is



subordinate to A。 But while it has been proved through the syllogism



that B belongs to no C; it has been assumed without proof that B



does not belong to A; consequently it does not result through the



syllogism that B does not belong to E。



  But in particular syllogisms there will be no necessity of inferring



what is subordinate to the conclusion (for a syllogism does not result



when this premiss is particular); but whatever is subordinate to the



middle term may be inferred; not however through the syllogism; e。g。



if A belongs to all B and B to some C。 Nothing can be inferred about



that which is subordinate to C; something can be inferred about that



which is subordinate to B; but not through the preceding syllogism。



Similarly in the other figures。 That which is subordinate to the



conclusion cannot be proved; the other subordinate can be proved; only



not through the syllogism; just as in the universal syllogisms what is



subordinate to the middle term is proved (as we saw) from a premiss



which is not demonstrated: consequently either a conclusion is not



possible in the case of universal syllogisms or else it is possible



also in the case of particular syllogisms。







                                 2







  It is possible for the premisses of the syllogism to be true; or



to be false; or to be the one true; the other false。 The conclusion is



either true or false necessarily。 From true premisses it is not



possible to draw a false conclusion; but a true conclusion may be



drawn from false premisses; true however only in respect to the



fact; not to the reason。 The reason cannot be established from false



premisses: why this is so will be explained in the sequel。



  First then that it is not possible to draw a false conclusion from



true premisses; is made clear by this consideration。 If it is



necessary that B should be when A is; it is necessary that A should



not be when B is not。 If then A is true; B must be true: otherwise



it will turn out that the same thing both is and is not at the same



time。 But this is impossible。 Let it not; because A is laid down as



a single term; be supposed that it is possible; when a single fact



is given; that something should necessarily result。 For that is not



possible。 For what results necessarily is the conclusion; and the



means by which this comes about are at the least three terms; and



two relations of subject and predicate or premisses。 If then it is



true that A belongs to all that to which B belongs; and that B belongs



to all that to which C belongs; it is necessary that A should belong



to all that to which C belongs; and this cannot be false: for then the



same thing will belong and not belong at the same time。 So A is



posited as one thing; being two premisses taken together。 The same



holds good of negative syllogisms: it is not possible to prove a false



conclusion from true premisses。



  But from what is false a true conclusion may be drawn; whether



both the premisses are false or only one; provided that this is not



either of the premisses indifferently; if it is taken as wholly false:



but if the premiss is not taken as wholly false; it does not matter



which of the two is false。 (1) Let A belong to the whole of C; but



to none of the Bs; neither let B belong to C。 This is possible; e。g。



animal belongs to no stone; nor stone to any man。 If then A is taken



to belong to all B and B to all C; A will belong to all C;



consequently though both the premisses are false the conclusion is



true: for every man is an animal。 Similarly with the negative。 For



it is possible that neither A nor B should belong to any C; although A



belongs to all B; e。g。 if the same terms are taken and man is put as



middle: for neither animal nor man belongs to any stone; but animal



belongs to every man。 Consequently if one term is taken to belong to



none of that to which it does belong; and the other term is taken to



belong to all of that to which it does not belong; though both the



premisses are false the conclusion will be true。 (2) A similar proof



may be given if each premiss is partially false。



  (3) But if one only of the premisses is false; when the first



premiss is wholly false; e。g。 AB; the conclusion will not be true; but



if the premiss BC is wholly false; a true conclusion will be possible。



I mean by 'wholly false' the contrary of the truth; e。g。 if what



belongs to none is assumed to belong to all; or if what belongs to all



is assumed to belong to none。 Let A belong to no B; and B to all C。 If



then the premiss BC which I take is true; and the premiss AB is wholly



false; viz。 that A belongs to all B; it is impossible that the



conclusion should be true: for A belonged to none of the Cs; since A



belonged to nothing to which B belonged; and B belonged to all C。



Similarly there cannot be a true conclusion if A belongs to all B; and



B to all C; but while the true premiss BC is assumed; the wholly false



premiss AB is also assumed; viz。 that A belongs to nothing to which



B belongs: here the conclusion must be false。 For A will belong to all



C; since A belongs to everything to which B belongs; and B to all C。



It is clear then that when the first premiss is wholly false;



whether affirmative or negative; and the other premiss is true; the



conclusion cannot be true。



  (4) But if the premiss is not wholly false; a true conclusion is



possible。 For if A belongs to all C and to some B; and if B belongs to



all C; e。g。 animal to every swan and to some white thing; and white to



every swan; then if we take as premisses that A belongs to all B;



and B to all C; A will belong to all C truly: for every swan is an



animal。 Similarly if the statement AB is negative。 For it is



possible that A should belong to some B and to no C; and that B should



belong to all C; e。g。 animal to some white thing; but to no snow;



and white to all snow。 If then one should assume that A belongs to



no B; and B to all C; then will belong to no C。



  (5) But if the premiss AB; which is assumed; is wholly true; and the



premiss BC is wholly false; a true syllogism will be possible: for



nothing prevents A belonging to all B and to all C; though B belongs



to no C; e。g。 these being species of the same genus which are not



subordinate one to the other: for animal belongs both to horse and



to man; but horse to no man。 If then it is assumed that A belongs to



all B and B to all C; the conclusion will be true; although the



premiss BC is wholly false。 Similarly if the premiss AB is negative。



For it is possible that A should belong neither to any B nor to any C;



and that B should not belong to any C; e。g。 a genus to species of



another genus: for animal belongs neither to music nor to the art of



healing; nor does music belong to the art of healing。 If then it is



assumed that A belongs to no B; and B to all C; the conclusion will be



true。



  (6) And if the premiss BC is not wholly false but in part only; even



so the conclusion may be true。 For nothing prevents A belonging to the



whole of B and of C; while B belongs to some C; e。g。 a genus to its



species an

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