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第21章

prior analytics-第21章

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  Whatever problems are proved in more than one figure; if they have



been established in one figure by syllogism; can be reduced to another



figure; e。g。 a negative syllogism in the first figure can be reduced



to the second; and a syllogism in the middle figure to the first;



not all however but some only。 The point will be clear in the



sequel。 If A belongs to no B; and B to all C; then A belongs to no



C。 Thus the first figure; but if the negative statement is



converted; we shall have the middle figure。 For B belongs to no A; and



to all C。 Similarly if the syllogism is not universal but



particular; e。g。 if A belongs to no B; and B to some C。 Convert the



negative statement and you will have the middle figure。



  The universal syllogisms in the second figure can be reduced to



the first; but only one of the two particular syllogisms。 Let A belong



to no B and to all C。 Convert the negative statement; and you will



have the first figure。 For B will belong to no A and A to all C。 But



if the affirmative statement concerns B; and the negative C; C must be



made first term。 For C belongs to no A; and A to all B: therefore C



belongs to no B。 B then belongs to no C: for the negative statement is



convertible。



  But if the syllogism is particular; whenever the negative



statement concerns the major extreme; reduction to the first figure



will be possible; e。g。 if A belongs to no B and to some C: convert the



negative statement and you will have the first figure。 For B will



belong to no A and A to some C。 But when the affirmative statement



concerns the major extreme; no resolution will be possible; e。g。 if



A belongs to all B; but not to all C: for the statement AB does not



admit of conversion; nor would there be a syllogism if it did。



  Again syllogisms in the third figure cannot all be resolved into the



first; though all syllogisms in the first figure can be resolved



into the third。 Let A belong to all B and B to some C。 Since the



particular affirmative is convertible; C will belong to some B: but



A belonged to all B: so that the third figure is formed。 Similarly



if the syllogism is negative: for the particular affirmative is



convertible: therefore A will belong to no B; and to some C。



  Of the syllogisms in the last figure one only cannot be resolved



into the first; viz。 when the negative statement is not universal: all



the rest can be resolved。 Let A and B be affirmed of all C: then C can



be converted partially with either A or B: C then belongs to some B。



Consequently we shall get the first figure; if A belongs to all C; and



C to some of the Bs。 If A belongs to all C and B to some C; the



argument is the same: for B is convertible in reference to C。 But if B



belongs to all C and A to some C; the first term must be B: for B



belongs to all C; and C to some A; therefore B belongs to some A。



But since the particular statement is convertible; A will belong to



some B。 If the syllogism is negative; when the terms are universal



we must take them in a similar way。 Let B belong to all C; and A to no



C: then C will belong to some B; and A to no C; and so C will be



middle term。 Similarly if the negative statement is universal; the



affirmative particular: for A will belong to no C; and C to some of



the Bs。 But if the negative statement is particular; no resolution



will be possible; e。g。 if B belongs to all C; and A not belong to some



C: convert the statement BC and both premisses will be particular。



  It is clear that in order to resolve the figures into one another



the premiss which concerns the minor extreme must be converted in both



the figures: for when this premiss is altered; the transition to the



other figure is made。



  One of the syllogisms in the middle figure can; the other cannot; be



resolved into the third figure。 Whenever the universal statement is



negative; resolution is possible。 For if A belongs to no B and to some



C; both B and C alike are convertible in relation to A; so that B



belongs to no A and C to some A。 A therefore is middle term。 But



when A belongs to all B; and not to some C; resolution will not be



possible: for neither of the premisses is universal after conversion。



  Syllogisms in the third figure can be resolved into the middle



figure; whenever the negative statement is universal; e。g。 if A



belongs to no C; and B to some or all C。 For C then will belong to



no A and to some B。 But if the negative statement is particular; no



resolution will be possible: for the particular negative does not



admit of conversion。



  It is clear then that the same syllogisms cannot be resolved in



these figures which could not be resolved into the first figure; and



that when syllogisms are reduced to the first figure these alone are



confirmed by reduction to what is impossible。



  It is clear from what we have said how we ought to reduce



syllogisms; and that the figures may be resolved into one another。







                                46







  In establishing or refuting; it makes some difference whether we



suppose the expressions 'not to be this' and 'to be not…this' are



identical or different in meaning; e。g。 'not to be white' and 'to be



not…white'。 For they do not mean the same thing; nor is 'to be



not…white' the negation of 'to be white'; but 'not to be white'。 The



reason for this is as follows。 The relation of 'he can walk' to 'he



can not…walk' is similar to the relation of 'it is white' to 'it is



not…white'; so is that of 'he knows what is good' to 'he knows what is



not…good'。 For there is no difference between the expressions 'he



knows what is good' and 'he is knowing what is good'; or 'he can walk'



and 'he is able to walk': therefore there is no difference between



their contraries 'he cannot walk'…'he is not able to walk'。 If then



'he is not able to walk' means the same as 'he is able not to walk';



capacity to walk and incapacity to walk will belong at the same time



to the same person (for the same man can both walk and not…walk; and



is possessed of knowledge of what is good and of what is not…good);



but an affirmation and a denial which are opposed to one another do



not belong at the same time to the same thing。 As then 'not to know



what is good' is not the same as 'to know what is not good'; so 'to be



not…good' is not the same as 'not to be good'。 For when two pairs



correspond; if the one pair are different from one another; the



other pair also must be different。 Nor is 'to be not…equal' the same



as 'not to be equal': for there is something underlying the one;



viz。 that which is not…equal; and this is the unequal; but there is



nothing underlying the other。 Wherefore not everything is either equal



or unequal; but everything is equal or is not equal。 Further the



expressions 'it is a not…white log' and 'it is not a white log' do not



imply one another's truth。 For if 'it is a not…white log'; it must



be a log: but that which is not a white log need not be a log at



all。 Therefore it is clear that 'it is not…good' is not the denial



of 'it is good'。 If then every single statement may truly be said to



be either an affirmation or a negation; if it is not a negation



clearly it must in a sense be an affirmation。 But every affirmation



has a corresponding negation。 The negation then of 'it is not…good' is



'it is not not…good'。 The relation of these statements to one



another is as follows。 Let A stand for 'to be good'; B for 'not to



be good'; let C stand for 'to be not…good' and be placed under B;



and let D stand for not to be not…good' and be placed under A。 Then

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