the crowd-第21章

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Words；　then；　have　only　mobile　and　transitory　significations　which　change　from　age　to　age　and　people　to　people；　and　when　we　desire　to　exert　an　influence　by　their　means　on　the　crowd　what　it　is　requisite　to　know　is　the　meaning　given　them　by　the　crowd　at　a　given　moment；　and　not　the　meaning　which　they　formerly　had　or　may　yet　have　for　individuals　of　a　different　mental　constitution。

Thus；　when　crowds　have　come；　as　the　result　of　political　upheavals　or　changes　of　belief；　to　acquire　a　profound　antipathy　for　the　images　evoked　by　certain　words；　the　first　duty　of　the　true　statesman　is　to　change　the　words　without；　of　course；　laying　hands　on　the　things　themselves；　the　latter　being　too　intimately　bound　up　with　the　inherited　constitution　to　be　transformed。　　The　judicious　Tocqueville　long　ago　made　the　remark　that　the　work　of　the　consulate　and　the　empire　consisted　more　particularly　in　the　clothing　with　new　words　of　the　greater　part　of　the　institutions　of　the　pastthat　is　to　say；　in　replacing　words　evoking　disagreeable　images　in　the　imagination　of　the　crowd　by　other　words　of　which　the　novelty　prevented　such　evocations。　　The　〃taille〃　or　tallage　has　become　the　land　tax；　the　〃gabelle；〃　the　tax　on　salt；　the　〃aids；〃　the　indirect　contributions　and　the　consolidated　duties；　the　tax　on　trade　companies　and　guilds；　the　license；　&c。

One　of　the　most　essential　functions　of　statesmen　consists；　then；　in　baptizing　with　popular　or；　at　any　rate；　indifferent　words　things　the　crowd　cannot　endure　under　their　old　names。　　The　power　of　words　is　so　great　that　it　suffices　to　designate　in　well…chosen　terms　the　most　odious　things　to　make　them　acceptable　to　crowds。　Taine　justly　observes　that　it　was　by　invoking　liberty　and　fraternitywords　very　popular　at　the　time　that　the　Jacobins　were　able　〃to　install　a　despotism　worthy　of　Dahomey；　a　tribunal　similar　to　that　of　the　Inquisition；　and　to　accomplish　human　hecatombs　akin　to　those　of　ancient　Mexico。〃　　The　art　of　those　who　govern；　as　is　the　case　with　the　art　of　advocates；　consists　above　all　in　the　science　of　employing　words。　　One　of　the　greatest　difficulties　of　this　art　is；　that　in　one　and　the　same　society　the　same　words　most　often　have　very　different　meanings　for　the　different　social　classes；　who　employ　in　appearance　the　same　words；　but　never　speak　the　same　language。

In　the　preceding　examples　it　is　especially　time　that　has　been　made　to　intervene　as　the　principal　factor　in　the　changing　of　the　meaning　of　words。　　If；　however；　we　also　make　race　intervene；　we　shall　then　see　that；　at　the　same　period；　among　peoples　equally　civilised　but　of　different　race；　the　same　words　very　often　correspond　to　extremely　dissimilar　ideas。　　It　is　impossible　to　understand　these　differences　without　having　travelled　much；　and　for　this　reason　I　shall　not　insist　upon　them。　　I　shall　confine　myself　to　observing　that　it　is　precisely　the　words　most　often　employed　by　the　masses　which　among　different　peoples　possess　the　most　different　meanings。　　Such　is　the　case；　for　instance；　with　the　words　〃democracy〃　and　〃socialism〃　in　such　frequent　use　nowadays。

In　reality　they　correspond　to　quite　contrary　ideas　and　images　in　the　Latin　and　Anglo…Saxon　mind。　　For　the　Latin　peoples　the　word　〃democracy〃　signifies　more　especially　the　subordination　of　the　will　and　the　initiative　of　the　individual　to　the　will　and　the　initiative　of　the　community　represented　by　the　State。　　It　is　the　State　that　is　charged；　to　a　greater　and　greater　degree；　with　the　direction　of　everything；　the　centralisation；　the　monopolisation；　and　the　manufacture　of　everything。　　To　the　State　it　is　that　all　parties　without　exception；　radicals；　socialists；　or　monarchists；　constantly　appeal。　　Among　the　Anglo…Saxons　and　notably　in　America　this　same　word　〃democracy〃　signifies；　on　the　contrary；　the　intense　development　of　the　will　of　the　individual；　and　as　complete　a　subordination　as　possible　of　the　State；　which；　with　the　exception　of　the　police；　the　army；　and　diplomatic　relations；　is　not　allowed　the　direction　of　anything；　not　even　of　public　instruction。　　It　is　seen；　then；　that　the　same　word　which　signifies　for　one　people　the　subordination　of　the　will　and　the　initiative　of　the　individual　and　the　preponderance　of　the　State；　signifies　for　another　the　excessive　development　of　the　will　and　the　initiative　of　the　individual　and　the　complete　subordination　of　the　State。＇13＇


＇13＇　In　my　book；　〃The　Psychological　Laws　of　the　Evolution　of　Peoples；〃　I　have　insisted　at　length　on　the　differences　which　distinguish　the　Latin　democratic　ideal　from　the　Anglo…Saxon　democratic　ideal。　　Independently；　and　as　the　result　of　his　travels；　M。　Paul　Bourget　has　arrived；　in　his　quite　recent　book；　〃Outre…Mer；〃　at　conclusions　almost　identical　with　mine。



2。　ILLUSIONS


From　the　dawn　of　civilisation　onwards　crowds　have　always　undergone　the　influence　of　illusions。　　It　is　to　the　creators　of　illusions　that　they　have　raised　more　temples；　statues；　and　altars　than　to　any　other　class　of　men。　　Whether　it　be　the　religious　illusions　of　the　past　or　the　philosophic　and　social　illusions　of　the　present；　these　formidable　sovereign　powers　are　always　found　at　the　head　of　all　the　civilisations　that　have　successively　flourished　on　our　planet。　　It　is　in　their　name　that　were　built　the　temples　of　Chaldea　and　Egypt　and　the　religious　edifices　of　the　Middle　Ages；　and　that　a　vast　upheaval　shook　the　whole　of　Europe　a　century　ago；　and　there　is　not　one　of　our　political；　artistic；　or　social　conceptions　that　is　free　from　their　powerful　impress。　　Occasionally；　at　the　cost　of　terrible　disturbances；　man　overthrows　them；　but　he　seems　condemned　to　always　set　them　up　again。　　Without　them　he　would　never　have　emerged　from　his　primitive　barbarian　state；　and　without　them　again　he　would　soon　return　to　it。　　Doubtless　they　are　futile　shadows；　but　these　children　of　our　dreams　have　forced　the　nations　to　create　whatever　the　arts　may　boast　of　splendour　or　civilisation　of　greatness。

〃If　one　destroyed　in　museums　and　libraries；　if　one　hurled　down　on　the　flagstones　before　the　churches　all　the　works　and　all　the　monuments　of　art　that　religions　have　inspired；　what　would　remain　of　the　great　dreams　of　humanity？　　To　give　to　men　that　portion　of　hope　and　illusion　without　which　they　cannot　live；　such　is　the　reason　for　the　existence　of　gods；　heroes；　and　poets。　　During　fifty　years　science　appeared　to　undertake　this　task。　　But　science　has　been　compromised　in　hearts　hungering　after　the　ideal；　because　it　does　not　dare　to　be　lavish　enough　of　promises；　because　it　cannot　lie。〃＇14＇


＇14＇　Daniel　Lesueur。



The　philosophers　of　the　last　century　devoted　themselves　with　fervour　to　the　destruction　of　the　religious；　political；　and　social　illusions　on　which　our　forefathers　had　lived　for　a　long　tale　of　centuries。　　By　destroying　them　they　have　dried　up　the　springs　of　hope　and　resignation。　　Behind　the　immolated　chimeras　they　came　face　to　face　with　the　blind　and　silent　forces　of　nature；　which　are　inexorable　to　weakness　and　ignore　pity。

Notwithstanding　all　its　progress；　philosophy　has　been　unable　as　yet　to　offer　the　masses　any　ideal　that　can　charm　them；　but；　as　they　must　have　their　illusions　at　all　cost；　they　turn　instinctively；　as　the　insect　seeks　the　light；　to　the　rhetoricians　who　accord　them　what　they　want。　　Not　truth；　but　error　has　always　been　the　chief　factor　in　the　evolution　of　nations；　and　the　reason　why　socialism　is　so　powerful　to…day　is　that　it　constitutes　the　last　illusion　that　is　still　vital。　　In　spite　of　all　scientific　demonstrations　it　continues　on　the　increase。　　Its　principal　strength　lies　in　the　fact　that　it　is　championed　by　minds　sufficiently　ignorant　of　things　as　they　are　in　reality　to　venture　boldly　to　promise　mankind　happiness。　　The　social　illusion　reigns　to…day　upon　all　the　heaped…up　ruins　of　the　past；　and　to　it　belongs　the　future。　　The　masses　have　never　thirsted　after　truth。　They　turn　aside　from　evidence　that　is　not　to　their　taste；　preferring　to　deify　error；　if　error　seduce　them。　　Whoever　can　supply　them　with　illusions　is　easily　their　master；　whoever　attempts　to　destroy　their　illusions　is　always　their　victim。


3。　EXPERIENCE


Experience　constitutes　almost　the　only　effective　process　by　which　a　truth　may　be　solidly　established　in　the　mind　of　the　masses；　and　illusions　grown　too　dangero