the common law-第70章

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charters　are　few；　royal　grants　at　first　permitted　an　election　of　heirs　among　the　kindred；　and　then　extended　it　beyond　them。　In　a　deed　of　the　year　679；　the　language　is；　〃as　it　is　granted　so　do　you　hold　it　and　your　posterity。〃　One　a　century　later　reads；　〃which　let　him　always　possess；　and　after　his　death　leave　to　which　of　his　heirs　he　will。〃　Another；　〃and　after　him　with　free　power　（of　choice）　leave　to　the　man　of　his　kin　to　whom　he　wishes　to〃　（leave　it）。　A　somewhat　earlier　charter　of　736　goes　a　step　further：　〃So　that　as　long　as　he　lives　he　shall　have　the　power　of　holding　and　possessing　（and）　of　leaving　it　to　whomsoever　he　choose；　either　in　his　lifetime；　or　certainly　after　his　death。〃　At　the　beginning　of　the　ninth　century　the　donee　has　power　to　leave　the　property　to　whomsoever　he　will；　or；　in　still　broader　terms；　to　exchange　or　grant　in　his　lifetime；　and　after　his　death　to　leave　it　to　whom　he　chooses；or　to　sell；　exchange；　and　leave　to　whatsoever　heir　he　chooses。　/1/　This　choice　of　heirs　＇359＇　recalls　the　quos　heredes　appellavit　of　the　Salic　law　just　mentioned；　and　may　be　compared　with　the　language　of　a　Norman　charter　of　about　the　year　1190：　〃To　W。　and　his　heirs；　to　wit　those　whom　he　may　constitute　his　heirs。〃　/1/

A　perfect　example　of　a　singular　succession　worked　out　by　the　fiction　of　kinship　is　to　be　found　in　the　story　of　Burnt　Njal；　an　Icelandic　saga；　which　gives　us　a　living　picture　of　a　society　hardly　more　advanced　than　the　Salian　Franks；　as　we　see　them　in　the　Lex　Salica。　A　lawsuit　was　to　be　transferred　by　the　proper　plaintiff　to　another　more　versed　in　the　laws；　and　better　able　to　carry　it　on；　in　fact；　to　an　attorney。　But　a　lawsuit　was　at　that　time　the　alternative　of　a　feud；　and　both　were　the　peculiar　affair　of　the　family　concerned。　/2/　Accordingly；　when　a　suit　for　killing　a　member　of　the　family　was　to　be　handed　over　to　a　stranger；　the　innovation　had　to　be　reconciled　with　the　theory　that　such　suit　belonged　only　to　the　next　of　kin。　Mord　is　to　take　upon　himself　Thorgeir's　suit　against　Flosi　for　killing　Helgi；　and　the　form　of　transfer　is　described　as　follows。

〃Then　Mord　took　Thorgeir　by　the　hand　and　named　two　witnesses　to　bear　witness；　'that　Thorgeir　Thofir's　son　hands　me　over　a　suit　for　manslaughter　against　Flosi　Thord's　son；　to　plead　it　for　the　slaying　of　Helgi　Njal's　son；　with　all　those　proofs　which　have　to　follow　the　suit。　Thou　handest　over　to　me　this　suit　to　plead　and　to　settle；　and　to　enjoy　all　rights　in　it；　as　though　I　were　the　rightful　next　of　kin。　Thou　handest　it　over　to　me　by　law；　and　I　＇360＇　take　it　from　thee　by　law。'〃　Afterwards；　these　witnesses　come　before　the　court；　and　bear　witness　to　the　transfer　in　like　words：　〃He　handed　over　to　him　then　this　suit；　with　all　the　proofs　and　proceedings　which　belonged　to　the　suit；　he　handed　it　over　to　him　to　plead　and　to　settle；　and　to　make　use　of　all　rights；　as　though　he　were　the　rightful　next　of　kin。　Thorgeir　handed　it　over　lawfully；　and　Mord　took　it　lawfully。〃　The　suit　went　on；　notwithstanding　the　change　of　hands；　as　if　the　next　of　kin　were　plaintiff。　This　is　shown　by　a　further　step　in　the　proceedings。　The　defendant　challenges　two　of　the　court；　on　the　ground　of　their　connection　with　Mord；　the　transferee；　by　blood　and　by　baptism。　But　Mord　replies　that　this　is　no　good　challenge；　for　〃he　challenged　them　not　for　their　kinship　to　the　true　plaintiff；　the　next　of　kin；　but　for　their　kinship　to　him　who　pleaded　the　suit。〃　And　the　other　side　had　to　admit　that　Mord　was　right　in　his　law。

I　now　turn　from　the　German　to　the　Roman　sources。　These　have　the　closest　connection　with　the　argument；　because　much　of　the　doctrine　to　be　found　there　has　been　transplanted　unchanged　into　modern　law。

The　early　Roman　law　only　recognized　as　relatives　those　who　would　have　been　members　of　the　same　patriarchal　family；　and　under　the　same　patriarchal　authority；　had　the　common　ancestor　survived。　As　wives　passed　into　the　families　of　their　husbands；　and　lost　all　connection　with　that　in　which　they　were　born；　relationship　through　females　was　altogether　excluded。　The　heir　was　one　who　traced　his　relationship　to　the　deceased　through　males　alone。　With　the　advance　of　civilization　this　rule　was　changed。　The　praetor　gave　the　benefits　of　the　inheritance　to　the　blood　relations；　although　they　were　not　heirs；　and　could　＇361＇　not　be　admitted　to　the　succession　according　to　the　ancient　law。　/1/　But　the　change　was　not　brought　about　by　repealing　the　old　law；　which　still　subsisted　under　the　name　of　the　jus　civile。　The　new　principle　was　accommodated　to　the　old　forms　by　a　fiction。　The　blood　relation　could　sue　on　the　fiction　that　he　was　an　heir；　although　he　was　not　one　in　fact。　/2/

One　the　early　forms　of　instituting　an　heir　was　a　sale　of　the　familia　or　headship　of　the　family　to　the　intended　heir；　with　all　its　rights　and　duties。　/3/　This　sale　of　the　universitas　was　afterwards　extended　beyond　the　case　of　inheritance　to　that　of　bankruptcy；　when　it　was　desired　to　put　the　bankrupt's　property　into　the　hands　of　a　trustee　for　distribution。　This　trustee　also　could　make　use　of　the　fiction；　and　sue　as　if　he　had　been　the　bankrupt's　heir。　/4/　We　are　told　by　one　of　the　great　jurisconsults　that　in　general　universal　successors　stand　in　the　place　of　heirs。　/5/

The　Roman　heir；　with　one　or　two　exceptions；　was　always　a　universal　successor；　and　the　fiction　of　heirship；　as　such；　could　hardly　be　used　with　propriety　except　to　enlarge　the　sphere　of　universal　successions。　So　far　as　it　extended；　however；　all　the　consequences　attached　to　the　original　fiction　of　identity　between　heir　and　ancestor　followed　as　of　course。

＇362＇　To　recur　to　the　case　of　rights　acquired　by　prescription；　every　universal　successor　could　add　the　time　of　his　predecessor's　adverse　use　to　his　own　in　order　to　make　out　the　right。　There　was　no　addition；　legally　speaking；　but　one　continuous　possession。

The　express　fiction　of　inheritance　perhaps　stopped　here。　But　when　a　similar　joinder　of　times　was　allowed　between　a　legatee　or　devisee　（legatarius）　and　his　testator；　the　same　explanation　was　offered。　It　was　said；　that；　when　a　specific　thing　was　left　to　a　person　by　will；　so　far　as　concerned　having　the　benefit　of　the　time　during　which　the　testator　had　been　in　possession　for　the　purpose　of　acquiring　a　title；　the　legatee　was　in　a　certain　sense　quasi　an　heir。　/1/　Yet　a　legatarius　was　not　a　universal　successor；　and　for　most　purposes　stood　in　marked　contrast　with　such　successors。　/2/

Thus　the　strict　law　of　inheritance　had　made　the　notion　familiar　that　one　man　might　have　the　advantage　of　a　position　filled　by　another；　although　it　was　not　filled；　or　was　only　partially　filled；　by　himself；　and　the　second　fiction；　by　which　the　privileges　of　a　legal　heir　in　this　respect　as　well　as　others　had　been　extended　to　other　persons；　broke　down　the　walls　which　might　otherwise　have　confined　those　privileges　to　a　single　case。　A　new　conception　was　introduced　into　the　law；　and　there　was　nothing　to　hinder　its　further　application。　As　has　been　shown；　it　was　applied　in　terms　to　a　sale　of　the　universitas　for　business　purposes；　and　to　at　least　one　case　where　the　succession　was　confined　to　a　single　specific　thing。　Why；　then；　might　not　every　gift　or　sale　be　regarded　as　a　succession；　so　far　as　to　insure　the　same　advantages？

＇363＇　The　joinder　of　times　to　make　out　a　title　was　soon　allowed　between　buyer　and　seller；　and　I　have　no　doubt；　from　the　language　always　used　by　the　Roman　lawyers；　that　it　was　arrived　at　in　the　way　I　have　suggested。　A　passage　from　Scaevola　（B。　C。　30）　will　furnish　sufficient　proof。　Joinder　of　possessions；　he　says；　that　is；　the　right　to　add　the　time　of　one's　predecessor's　holding　to　one's　own；　clearly　belongs　to　those　who　succeed　to　the　place　of　others；　whether　by　contract　or　by　will：　for　heirs　and　those　who　are　treated　as　holding　the　place　of　successors　are　allowed　to　add　their　testator's　possession　to　their　own。　Accordingly；　if　you　sell　me　a　slave　I　shall　have　the　benefit　of　your　holding。　/1/

The　joinder　of　times　is　given　to　those　who　succeed　to　the　place　of　another。　Ulpian　cites　a　like　phrase　from　a　jurisconsult　of　the　time　of　the　Antonines；　〃to　whose　place　I　have　succeeded　by　inheritance；　or　purchase；　or　any　other　right。〃　/2/　Succedere　in　locum　aliorum；　like　sustinere　personam；　is　an　expression　of　the