the common law-µÚ20ÕÂ
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es£»¡¡or£»¡¡if¡¡he¡¡thought¡¡that¡¡it¡¡belonged¡¡to¡¡another£»¡¡in¡¡holding¡¡him¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡get¡¡proof¡¡of¡¡title¡¡before¡¡acting¡£¡¡Consider£»¡¡too£»¡¡what¡¡the¡¡defendant's¡¡liability¡¡amounts¡¡to£»¡¡if¡¡the¡¡act£»¡¡whether¡¡an¡¡entry¡¡upon¡¡land¡¡or¡¡a¡¡conversion¡¡of¡¡chattels£»¡¡has¡¡been¡¡unattended¡¡by¡¡damage¡¡to¡¡the¡¡property£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡thing¡¡has¡¡come¡¡back¡¡to¡¡the¡¡hands¡¡of¡¡the¡¡true¡¡owner¡£¡¡The¡¡sum¡¡recovered¡¡is¡¡merely¡¡nominal£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡payment¡¡is¡¡nothing¡¡more¡¡than¡¡a¡¡formal¡¡acknowledgment¡¡of¡¡the¡¡owner's¡¡title£»¡¡which£»¡¡considering¡¡the¡¡effect¡¡of¡¡prescription¡¡and¡¡statutes¡¡of¡¡limitation¡¡upon¡¡repeated¡¡acts¡¡of¡¡dominion£»¡¡is¡¡no¡¡more¡¡than¡¡right¡£¡¡/1/¡¡All¡¡semblance¡¡of¡¡injustice¡¡disappears¡¡when¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡is¡¡allowed¡¡to¡¡avoid¡¡the¡¡costs¡¡of¡¡an¡¡action¡¡by¡¡tender¡¡or¡¡otherwise¡£
But¡¡suppose¡¡the¡¡property¡¡has¡¡not¡¡come¡¡back¡¡to¡¡the¡¡hands¡¡of¡¡the¡¡true¡¡owner¡£¡¡If¡¡the¡¡thing¡¡remains¡¡in¡¡the¡¡hands¡¡of¡¡the¡¡defendant£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡clearly¡¡right¡¡that¡¡he¡¡should¡¡surrender¡¡it¡£¡¡And¡¡if¡¡instead¡¡of¡¡the¡¡thing¡¡itself¡¡he¡¡holds¡¡the¡¡proceeds¡¡of¡¡a¡¡sale£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡as¡¡reasonable¡¡to¡¡make¡¡him¡¡pay¡¡over¡¡its¡¡value¡¡in¡¡trover¡¡or¡¡assumpsit¡¡as¡¡it¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡to¡¡compel¡¡a¡¡surrender¡¡of¡¡the¡¡thing¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡question¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡has¡¡subsequently¡¡paid¡¡over¡¡the¡¡proceeds¡¡of¡¡the¡¡sale¡¡of¡¡a¡¡chattel¡¡to¡¡a¡¡third¡¡person£»¡¡cannot¡¡affect¡¡the¡¡rights¡¡of¡¡the¡¡true¡¡owner¡¡of¡¡the¡¡£§99£§¡¡chattel¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡supposed¡¡case¡¡of¡¡an¡¡auctioneer£»¡¡for¡¡instance£»¡¡if¡¡he¡¡had¡¡paid¡¡the¡¡true¡¡owner£»¡¡it¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡an¡¡answer¡¡to¡¡his¡¡bailor's¡¡claim¡£¡¡If¡¡he¡¡has¡¡paid¡¡his¡¡bailor¡¡instead£»¡¡he¡¡has¡¡paid¡¡one¡¡whom¡¡he¡¡was¡¡not¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡pay£»¡¡and¡¡no¡¡general¡¡principle¡¡requires¡¡that¡¡this¡¡should¡¡be¡¡held¡¡to¡¡divest¡¡the¡¡plaintiff's¡¡right¡£
Another¡¡consideration¡¡affecting¡¡the¡¡argument¡¡that¡¡the¡¡law¡¡as¡¡to¡¡trespasses¡¡upon¡¡property¡¡establishes¡¡a¡¡general¡¡principle£»¡¡is¡¡that¡¡the¡¡defendant's¡¡knowledge¡¡or¡¡ignorance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡plaintiff's¡¡title¡¡is¡¡likely¡¡to¡¡lie¡¡wholly¡¡in¡¡his¡¡own¡¡breast£»¡¡and¡¡therefore¡¡hardly¡¡admits¡¡of¡¡satisfactory¡¡proof¡£¡¡Indeed£»¡¡in¡¡many¡¡cases¡¡it¡¡cannot¡¡have¡¡been¡¡open¡¡to¡¡evidence¡¡at¡¡all¡¡at¡¡the¡¡time¡¡when¡¡the¡¡law¡¡was¡¡settled£»¡¡before¡¡parties¡¡were¡¡permitted¡¡to¡¡testify¡£¡¡Accordingly£»¡¡in¡¡Basely¡¡v¡£¡¡Clarkson£»¡¡/1/¡¡where¡¡the¡¡defence¡¡set¡¡up¡¡to¡¡an¡¡action¡¡of¡¡trespass¡¡quare¡¡clausum¡¡was¡¡that¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡in¡¡mowing¡¡his¡¡own¡¡land¡¡involuntarily¡¡and¡¡by¡¡mistake¡¡mowed¡¡down¡¡some¡¡of¡¡the¡¡plaintiff's¡¡grass£»¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡¡had¡¡judgment¡¡on¡¡demurrer¡£¡¡¡¨For¡¡it¡¡appears¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡was¡¡voluntary£»¡¡and¡¡his¡¡intention¡¡and¡¡knowledge¡¡are¡¡not¡¡traversable£»¡¡they¡¡can't¡¡be¡¡known¡£¡¨
This¡¡language¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡it¡¡would¡¡be¡¡sufficient¡¡to¡¡explain¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡trespass¡¡upon¡¡property¡¡historically£»¡¡without¡¡attempting¡¡to¡¡justify¡¡it¡£¡¡For¡¡it¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡be¡¡admitted¡¡that¡¡if¡¡the¡¡defendant's¡¡mistake¡¡could¡¡be¡¡proved¡¡it¡¡might¡¡be¡¡material¡£¡¡/2/¡¡It¡¡will¡¡be¡¡noticed£»¡¡further£»¡¡that¡¡any¡¡general¡¡argument¡¡from¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡trespass¡¡upon¡¡laud¡¡to¡¡that¡¡governing¡¡trespass¡¡against¡¡the¡¡person¡¡is¡¡shown¡¡to¡¡be¡¡misleading¡¡by¡¡the¡¡law¡¡as¡¡to¡¡cattle¡£¡¡The¡¡owner¡¡is¡¡bound¡¡at¡¡his¡¡peril¡¡£§100£§¡¡to¡¡keep¡¡them¡¡off¡¡his¡¡neighbor's¡¡premises£»¡¡but¡¡he¡¡is¡¡not¡¡bound¡¡at¡¡his¡¡peril¡¡in¡¡all¡¡cases¡¡to¡¡keep¡¡them¡¡from¡¡his¡¡neighbor's¡¡person¡£
The¡¡objections¡¡to¡¡such¡¡a¡¡decision¡¡as¡¡supposed¡¡in¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡an¡¡auctioneer¡¡do¡¡not¡¡rest¡¡on¡¡the¡¡general¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡liability£»¡¡but¡¡spring¡¡altogether¡¡from¡¡the¡¡special¡¡exigencies¡¡of¡¡commerce¡£¡¡It¡¡does¡¡not¡¡become¡¡unjust¡¡to¡¡hold¡¡a¡¡person¡¡liable¡¡for¡¡unauthorized¡¡intermeddling¡¡with¡¡another's¡¡property£»¡¡until¡¡there¡¡arises¡¡the¡¡practical¡¡necessity¡¡for¡¡rapid¡¡dealing¡£¡¡But¡¡where¡¡this¡¡practical¡¡necessity¡¡exists£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡surprising¡¡to¡¡find£»¡¡and¡¡we¡¡do¡¡find£»¡¡a¡¡different¡¡tendency¡¡in¡¡the¡¡law¡£¡¡The¡¡absolute¡¡protection¡¡of¡¡property£»¡¡however¡¡natural¡¡to¡¡a¡¡primitive¡¡community¡¡more¡¡occupied¡¡in¡¡production¡¡than¡¡in¡¡exchange£»¡¡is¡¡hardly¡¡consistent¡¡with¡¡the¡¡requirements¡¡of¡¡modern¡¡business¡£¡¡Even¡¡when¡¡the¡¡rules¡¡which¡¡we¡¡have¡¡been¡¡considering¡¡were¡¡established£»¡¡the¡¡traffic¡¡of¡¡the¡¡public¡¡markets¡¡was¡¡governed¡¡by¡¡more¡¡liberal¡¡principles¡£¡¡On¡¡the¡¡continent¡¡of¡¡Europe¡¡it¡¡was¡¡long¡¡ago¡¡decided¡¡that¡¡the¡¡policy¡¡of¡¡protecting¡¡titles¡¡must¡¡yield¡¡to¡¡the¡¡policy¡¡of¡¡protecting¡¡trade¡£¡¡Casaregis¡¡held¡¡that¡¡the¡¡general¡¡principle¡¡nemo¡¡plus¡¡juris¡¡in¡¡alium¡¡transferre¡¡potest¡¡quam¡¡ipse¡¡habet¡¡must¡¡give¡¡way¡¡in¡¡mercantile¡¡transactions¡¡to¡¡possession¡¡vaut¡¡titre¡£¡¡/1/¡¡In¡¡later¡¡times£»¡¡as¡¡markets¡¡overt¡¡have¡¡lost¡¡their¡¡importance£»¡¡the¡¡Factors'¡¡Acts¡¡and¡¡their¡¡successive¡¡amendments¡¡have¡¡tended¡¡more¡¡and¡¡more¡¡in¡¡the¡¡direction¡¡of¡¡adopting¡¡the¡¡Continental¡¡doctrine¡£
I¡¡must¡¡preface¡¡the¡¡argument¡¡from¡¡precedent¡¡with¡¡a¡¡reference¡¡to¡¡what¡¡has¡¡been¡¡said¡¡already¡¡in¡¡the¡¡first¡¡Lecture¡¡about¡¡early¡¡forms¡¡of¡¡liability£»¡¡and¡¡especially¡¡about¡¡£§101£§¡¡the¡¡appeals¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡there¡¡shown¡¡that¡¡the¡¡appeals¡¡de¡¡pace¡¡et¡¡plagis¡¡and¡¡of¡¡mayhem¡¡became¡¡the¡¡action¡¡of¡¡trespass£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡those¡¡appeals¡¡and¡¡the¡¡early¡¡actions¡¡of¡¡trespass¡¡were¡¡always£»¡¡so¡¡far¡¡as¡¡appears£»¡¡for¡¡intentional¡¡wrongs¡£¡¡/1/
The¡¡contra¡¡pacem¡¡in¡¡the¡¡writ¡¡of¡¡trespass¡¡was¡¡no¡¡doubt¡¡inserted¡¡to¡¡lay¡¡a¡¡foundation¡¡for¡¡the¡¡king's¡¡writ£»¡¡but¡¡there¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡be¡¡no¡¡reason¡¡to¡¡attribute¡¡a¡¡similar¡¡purpose¡¡to¡¡vi¡¡et¡¡armis£»¡¡or¡¡cum¡¡vi¡¡sua£»¡¡as¡¡it¡¡was¡¡often¡¡put¡£¡¡Glanvill¡¡says¡¡that¡¡wounds¡¡are¡¡within¡¡the¡¡sheriff's¡¡jurisdiction£»¡¡unless¡¡the¡¡appellor¡¡adds¡¡a¡¡charge¡¡of¡¡breach¡¡of¡¡the¡¡king's¡¡peace¡£¡¡/2/¡¡Yet¡¡the¡¡wounds¡¡are¡¡given¡¡vi¡¡et¡¡armis¡¡as¡¡much¡¡in¡¡the¡¡one¡¡case¡¡as¡¡in¡¡the¡¡other¡£¡¡Bracton¡¡says¡¡that¡¡the¡¡lesser¡¡wrongs¡¡described¡¡by¡¡him¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡the¡¡king's¡¡jurisdiction£»¡¡¡¨because¡¡they¡¡are¡¡sometimes¡¡against¡¡the¡¡peace¡¡of¡¡our¡¡lord¡¡the¡¡king£»¡¨¡¡/3/¡¡while£»¡¡as¡¡has¡¡been¡¡observed£»¡¡they¡¡were¡¡supposed¡¡to¡¡be¡¡always¡¡committed¡¡intentionally¡£¡¡It¡¡might¡¡even¡¡perhaps¡¡be¡¡inferred¡¡that¡¡the¡¡allegation¡¡contra¡¡pacem¡¡was¡¡originally¡¡material£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡will¡¡be¡¡remembered¡¡that¡¡trespasses¡¡formerly¡¡involved¡¡the¡¡liability¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡a¡¡fine¡¡to¡¡the¡¡king¡£¡¡/4/
If¡¡it¡¡be¡¡true¡¡that¡¡trespass¡¡was¡¡originally¡¡confined¡¡to¡¡intentional¡¡wrongs£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡hardly¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡consider¡¡the¡¡argument¡¡drawn¡¡from¡¡the¡¡scope¡¡of¡¡the¡¡general¡¡issue¡£¡¡In¡¡form¡¡it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡mitigation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡strict¡¡denial¡¡de¡¡verbo¡¡in¡¡verbum¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ancient¡¡procedure£»¡¡to¡¡which¡¡the¡¡inquest¡¡given¡¡by¡¡the¡¡king's¡¡writ¡¡was¡¡unknown¡£¡¡/5/¡¡The¡¡strict¡¡form¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡have¡¡lasted¡¡in¡¡England¡¡some¡¡time¡¡after¡¡the¡¡trial¡¡of¡¡the¡¡issue¡¡by¡¡recognition¡¡was¡¡introduced¡£¡¡/6/¡¡When¡¡£§102£§¡¡a¡¡recognition¡¡was¡¡granted£»¡¡the¡¡inquest¡¡was£»¡¡of¡¡course£»¡¡only¡¡competent¡¡to¡¡speak¡¡to¡¡the¡¡facts£»¡¡as¡¡has¡¡been¡¡said¡¡above¡£¡¡/1/¡¡When¡¡the¡¡general¡¡issue¡¡was¡¡introduced£»¡¡trespass¡¡was¡¡still¡¡confined¡¡to¡¡intentional¡¡wrongs¡£
We¡¡may¡¡now¡¡take¡¡up¡¡the¡¡authorities¡£¡¡It¡¡will¡¡be¡¡remembered¡¡that¡¡the¡¡earlier¡¡precedents¡¡are¡¡of¡¡a¡¡date¡¡when¡¡the¡¡assize¡¡and¡¡jurata¡¡had¡¡not¡¡given¡¡place¡¡to¡¡the¡¡modern¡¡jury¡£¡¡These¡¡bodies¡¡spoke¡¡from¡¡their¡¡own¡¡knowledge¡¡to¡¡an¡¡issue¡¡defined¡¡by¡¡the¡¡writ£»¡¡or¡¡to¡¡certain¡¡familiar¡¡questions¡¡of¡¡fact¡¡arising¡¡in¡¡the¡¡trial¡¡of¡¡a¡¡cause£»¡¡but¡¡did¡¡not¡¡hear¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡case¡¡upon¡¡evidence¡¡adduced¡£¡¡Their¡¡function¡¡was¡¡more¡¡limited¡¡than¡¡that¡¡which¡¡has¡¡been¡¡gained¡¡by¡¡the¡¡jury£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡naturally¡¡happened¡¡that£»¡¡when¡¡they¡¡had¡¡declared¡¡what¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡had¡¡done£»¡¡the¡¡judges¡¡laid¡¡down¡¡the¡¡standard¡¡by¡¡which¡¡those¡¡acts¡¡were¡¡to¡¡be¡¡measured¡¡without¡¡their¡¡assistance¡£¡¡Hence¡¡the¡¡question¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Year¡¡Books¡¡is¡¡not¡¡a¡¡loose¡¡or¡¡general¡¡inquiry¡¡of¡¡the¡¡jury¡¡whether¡¡they¡¡think¡¡the¡¡alleged¡¡trespasser¡¡was¡¡negligent¡¡on¡¡such¡¡facts¡¡as¡¡they¡¡may¡¡find£»¡¡but¡¡a¡¡well¡defined¡¡issue¡¡of¡¡law£»¡¡to¡¡be¡¡determined¡¡by¡¡the¡¡court£»¡¡whether¡¡certain¡¡acts¡¡set¡¡forth¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡record¡¡are¡¡a¡¡ground¡¡of¡¡liability¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡possible¡¡that¡¡the¡¡judges¡¡may¡¡have¡¡dealt¡¡pretty¡¡strictly¡¡with¡¡defendants£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡is¡¡quite¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡pass¡¡from¡¡the¡¡premise¡¡that¡¡defendants¡¡have¡¡been¡¡held¡¡trespassers¡¡for¡¡a¡¡variety¡¡of¡¡acts£»¡¡without¡¡mention¡¡of¡¡neglect£»¡¡to¡¡the¡¡conclusion¡¡that¡¡any¡¡act¡¡by¡¡which¡¡another¡¡was¡¡damaged¡¡will¡¡make¡¡the¡¡actor¡¡chargeable¡£¡¡But¡¡a¡¡more¡¡exact¡¡scrutiny¡¡of¡¡the¡¡early¡¡books¡¡will¡¡show¡¡that¡¡liability¡¡in¡¡general£»¡¡then¡¡as¡¡later£»¡¡was¡¡£§103£§¡¡founded¡¡on¡¡the¡¡opinion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡tribunal¡¡that¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡ought¡¡to¡¡have¡¡acted¡¡otherwise£»¡¡or£»¡¡in¡¡other¡¡words£»¡¡that¡¡he¡¡was¡¡to¡¡blame¡£
Returning¡¡first¡¡to¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡the¡¡thorns¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Year¡¡Book£»¡¡/1/¡¡it¡¡will¡¡be¡¡seen¡¡that¡¡the¡¡falling¡¡of¡¡the¡¡thorns¡¡into¡¡the¡¡plaintiff's¡¡close£»¡¡although¡¡a¡¡result¡¡not¡¡wished¡¡by¡¡the¡¡defendant£»¡¡was¡¡in¡¡no¡¡other¡¡sense¡¡against¡¡his¡¡will¡£¡¡When¡¡he¡¡cut¡¡the¡¡thorns£»¡¡he¡¡did¡¡an¡¡act¡¡which¡¡obviously¡¡and¡¡necessarily¡¡would¡¡have¡¡that¡¡consequence£»¡¡and¡¡he¡¡must¡¡be¡¡taken¡¡to¡¡have¡¡foreseen¡¡and¡¡not¡¡to¡¡have¡¡prevented¡¡it¡£¡¡Choke£»¡¡C¡£¡¡J¡£¡¡says£»¡¡¡¨As¡¡to¡¡what¡¡was¡¡said¡¡about¡¡their¡¡falling¡¡in£»¡¡ipso¡¡invito£»¡¡that¡¡is¡¡no¡¡plea£»¡¡but¡¡he¡¡ought¡¡to¡¡show¡¡that¡¡he¡¡could¡¡not¡¡d