philosophy of right-第57章
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poverty。 The poor still have the needs common to civil society； and yet since
society has withdrawn from them the natural means of acquisition （see § 217）
and broken the bond of the family — in the wider sense of the clan （see § 181）
— their poverty leaves them more or less deprived of all the advantages of
society； of the opportunity of acquiring skill or education of any kind； as well as
of the administration of justice； the public health services； and often even of the
consolations of religion； and so forth。 The public authority takes the place of the
family where the poor are concerned in respect not only of their immediate want
but also of laziness of disposition； malignity； and the other vices which arise out
of their plight and their sense of wrong。
§ 242。
Poverty and； in general； the distress of every kind to which every individual is
exposed from the start in the cycle of his natural life has a subjective side which
demands similarly subjective aid； arising both from the special circumstances of a
particular case and also from love and sympathy。 This is the place where morality
finds plenty to do despite all public organisation。 Subjective aid； however； both in
itself and in its operation； is dependent on contingency and consequently society
struggles to make it less necessary； by discovering the general causes of penury
and general means of its relief； and by organising relief accordingly。
Remark： Casual almsgiving and casual endowments； e。g。 for the burning of lamps before holy
images； &c。； are supplemented by public almshouses； hospitals； street…lighting； and so forth。 There
is still quite enough left over and above these things for charity to do on its own account。 A false
view is implied both when charity insists on having this poor…relief reserved solely to private
sympathy and the accidental occurrence of knowledge and a charitable disposition； and also when
it feels injured or mortified by universal regulations and ordinances which are obligatory。 Public
social conditions are on the contrary to be regarded as all the more perfect the less （in comparison
with what is arranged publicly） is left for an individual to do by himself as his private inclination
directs。
§ 243。
When civil society is in a state of unimpeded activity； it is engaged in expanding
internally in population and industry。 The amassing of wealth is intensified by
generalising （a） the linkage of men by their needs； and （b） the methods of
preparing and distributing the means to satisfy these needs； because it is from this
double process of generalisation that the largest profits are derived。 That is one
side of the picture。 The other side is the subdivision and restriction of particular
jobs。 This results in the dependence and distress of the class tied to work of that
sort； and these again entail inability to feel and enjoy the broader freedoms and
especially the intellectual benefits of civil society。
§ 244。
When the standard of living of a large mass of people falls below a certain
subsistence level — a level regulated automatically as the one necessary for a
member of the society — and when there is a consequent loss of the sense of right
and wrong； of honesty and the self…respect which makes a man insist on
maintaining himself by his own work and effort； the result is the creation of a
rabble of paupers。 At the same time this brings with it； at the other end of the
social scale； conditions which greatly facilitate the concentration of
disproportionate wealth in a few hands。
Addition： The lowest subsistence level； that of a rabble of paupers； is fixed automatically； but
the minimum varies considerably in different countries。 In England； even the very poorest believe
that they have rights； this is different from what satisfies the poor in other countries。 Poverty in itself
does not make men into a rabble； a rabble is created only when there is joined to poverty a
disposition of mind； an inner indignation against the rich； against society； against the government；
&c。 A further consequence of this attitude is that through their dependence on chance men
become frivolous and idle； like the Neapolitan lazzaroni for example。 In this way there is born in
the rabble the evil of lacking self…respect enough to secure subsistence by its own labour and yet
at the same time of claiming to receive subsistence as its right。 Against nature man can claim no
right； but once society is established； poverty immediately takes the form of a wrong done to one
class by another。 The important question of how poverty is to be abolished is one of the most
disturbing problems which agitate modem society。
§ 245。
When the masses begin to decline into poverty； （a） the burden of maintaining
them at their ordinary standard of living might be directly laid on the wealthier
classes； or they might receive the means of livelihood directly from other public
sources of wealth （e。g。 from the endowments of rich hospitals； monasteries； and
other foundations）。 In either case； however； the needy would receive subsistence
directly； not by means of their work； and this would violate the principle of civil
society and the feeling of individual independence and self…respect in its individual
members。 （b） As an alternative； they might be given subsistence indirectly through
being given work； i。e。 the opportunity to work。 In this event the volume of
production would be increased； but the evil consists precisely in an excess of
production and in the lack of a proportionate number of consumers who are
themselves also producers； and thus it is simply intensified by both of the
methods （a） and （b） by which it is sought to alleviate it。 It hence becomes
apparent that despite an excess of wealth civil society is not rich enough； i。e。 its
own resources are insufficient to check excessive poverty and the creation of a
penurious rabble。
Remark： In the example of England we may study these phenomena on a large scale and also in
particular the results of poor…rates； immense foundations； unlimited private beneficence； and above
all the abolition of the Guild Corporations。 In Britain； particularly in Scotland； the most direct
measure against poverty and especially against the loss of shame and self…respect — the subjective
bases of society — as well as against laziness and extravagance； &c。； the begetters of the rabble；
has turned out to be to leave the poor to their fate and instruct them to beg in the streets。
§ 246。
This inner dialectic of civil society thus drives it — or at any rate drives a specific
civil society — to push beyond its own limits and seek markets； and so its
necessary means of subsistence； in other lands which are either deficient in the
goods it has over…produced； or else generally backward in industry； &c。
§ 247。
The principle of family life is dependence on the soil； on land； terra firma。
Similarly； the natural element for industry； animating its outward movement； is
the sea。 Since the passion for gain involves risk； industry though bent on gain yet
lifts itself above it； instead of remaining rooted to the soil and the limited circle of
civil life with its pleasures and desires； it embraces the element of flux； danger；
and destruction。 Further； the sea is the greatest means of communication； and
trade by sea creates commercial connections between distant countries and so
relations involving contractual rights。 At the same time； commerce of this kind is
the most potent instrument of culture； and through it trade acquires its
significance in the history of the world。
Rivers are not natural boundaries of separation； which is what they 。have been
accounted to be in modem times。 On the contrary； it is truer to say that they； and
the sea likewise； link men together。 Horace is wrong when he says：
deus abscidit
prudens Oceano dissociabili
tetras。
Remark： The proof of this lies not merely in the fact that the basins of rivers
