wealbk01-第19章

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same　in　all　those　different　states。　I　shall；　in　the　third　place；

endeavour　to　explain　all　the　different　circumstances　which

regulate　this　proportion。

　　　　　In　the　fourth　and　last　place；　I　shall　endeavour　to　show　what

are　the　circumstances　which　regulate　the　rent　of　land；　and　which

either　raise　or　lower　the　real　price　of　all　the　different

substances　which　it　produces。　　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　CHAPTER　VIII



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Of　the　Wages　of　Labour　



　　　　　THE　produce　of　labour　constitutes　the　natural　recompense　or

wages　of　labour。

　　　　　In　that　original　state　of　things；　which　precedes　both　the

appropriation　of　land　and　the　accumulation　of　stock；　the　whole

produce　of　labour　belongs　to　the　labourer。　He　has　neither

landlord　nor　master　to　share　with　him。

　　　　　Had　this　state　continued；　the　wages　of　labour　would　have

augmented　with　all　those　improvements　in　its　productive　powers　to

which　the　division　of　labour　gives　occasion。　All　things　would

gradually　have　become　cheaper。　They　would　have　been　produced　by　a

smaller　quantity　of　labour；　and　as　the　commodities　produced　by

equal　quantities　of　labour　would　naturally　in　this　state　of

things　be　exchanged　for　one　another；　they　would　have　been

purchased　likewise　with　the　produce　of　a　smaller　quantity。

　　　　　But　though　all　things　would　have　become　cheaper　in　reality；

in　appearance　many　things　might　have　become　dearer　than　before；

or　have　been　exchanged　for　a　greater　quantity　of　other　goods。　Let

us　suppose；　for　example；　that　in　the　greater　part　of　employments

the　productive　powers　of　labour　had　been　improved　to　ten　fold；　or

that　a　day's　labour　could　produce　ten　times　the　quantity　of　work

which　it　had　done　originally；　but　that　in　a　particular　employment

they　had　been　improved；　only　to　double；　or　that　a　day's　labour

could　produce　only　twice　the　quantity　of　work　which　it　had　done

before。　In　exchanging　the　produce　of　a　day's　labour　in　the

greater　part　of　employments　for　that　of　a　day's　labour　in　this

particular　one；　ten　times　the　original　quantity　of　work　in　them

would　purchase　only　twice　the　original　quantity　in　it。　Any

particular　quantity　in　it；　therefore；　a　pound　weight；　for

example；　would　appear　to　be　five　times　dearer　than　before。　In

reality；　however；　it　would　be　twice　as　cheap。　Though　it　required

five　times　the　quantity　of　other　goods　to　purchase　it；　it　would

require　only　half　the　quantity　of　labour　either　to　purchase　or　to

produce　it。　The　acquisition；　therefore；　would　be　twice　as　easy　as

before。

　　　　　But　this　original　state　of　things；　in　which　the　labourer

enjoyed　the　whole　produce　of　his　own　labour；　could　not　last

beyond　the　first　introduction　of　the　appropriation　of　land　and

the　accumulation　of　stock。　It　was　at　an　end；　therefore；　long

before　the　most　considerable　improvements　were　made　in　the

productive　powers　of　labour；　and　it　would　be　to　no　purpose　to

trace　further　what　might　have　been　its　effects　upon　the

recompense　or　wages　of　labour。

　　　　　As　soon　as　land　becomes　private　property；　the　landlord

demands　a　share　of　almost　all　the　produce　which　the　labourer　can

either　raise；　or　collect　from　it。　His　rent　makes　the　first

deduction　from　the　produce　of　the　labour　which　is　employed　upon

land。

　　　　　It　seldom　happens　that　the　person　who　tills　the　ground　has

wherewithal　to　maintain　himself　till　he　reaps　the　harvest。　His

maintenance　is　generally　advanced　to　him　from　the　stock　of　a

master；　the　farmer　who　employs　him；　and　who　would　have　no

interest　to　employ　him；　unless　he　was　to　share　in　the　produce　of

his　labour；　or　unless　his　stock　was　to　be　replaced　to　him　with　a

profit。　This　profit；　makes　a　second　deduction　from　the　produce　of

the　labour　which　is　employed　upon　land。

　　　　　The　produce　of　almost　all　other　labour　is　liable　to　the　like

deduction　of　profit。　In　all　arts　and　manufactures　the　greater

part　of　the　workmen　stand　in　need　of　a　master　to　advance　them　the

materials　of　their　work；　and　their　wages　and　maintenance　till　it

be　completed。　He　shares　in　the　produce　of　their　labour；　or　in　the

value　which　it　adds　to　the　materials　upon　which　it　is　bestowed；

and　in　this　share　consists　his　profit。

　　　　　It　sometimes　happens；　indeed；　that　a　single　independent

workman　has　stock　sufficient　both　to　purchase　the　materials　of

his　work；　and　to　maintain　himself　till　it　be　completed。　He　is

both　master　and　workman；　and　enjoys　the　whole　produce　of　his　own

labour；　or　the　whole　value　which　it　adds　to　the　materials　upon

which　it　is　bestowed。　It　includes　what　are　usually　two　distinct

revenues；　belonging　to　two　distinct　persons；　the　profits　of

stock；　and　the　wages　of　labour。

　　　　　Such　cases；　however；　are　not　very　frequent；　and　in　every

part　of　Europe；　twenty　workmen　serve　under　a　master　for　one　that

is　independent；　and　the　wages　of　labour　are　everywhere　understood

to　be；　what　they　usually　are；　when　the　labourer　is　one　person；

and　the　owner　of　the　stock　which　employs　him　another。

　　　　　What　are　the　common　wages　of　labour；　depends　everywhere　upon

the　contract　usually　made　between　those　two　parties；　whose

interests　are　by　no　means　the　same。　The　workmen　desire　to　get　as

much；　the　masters　to　give　as　little　as　possible。　The　former　are

disposed　to　combine　in　order　to　raise；　the　latter　in　order　to

lower　the　wages　of　labour。

　　　　　It　is　not；　however；　difficult　to　foresee　which　of　the　two

parties　must；　upon　all　ordinary　occasions；　have　the　advantage　in

the　dispute；　and　force　the　other　into　a　compliance　with　their

terms。　The　masters；　being　fewer　in　number；　can　combine　much　more

easily；　and　the　law；　besides；　authorizes；　or　at　least　does　not

prohibit　their　combinations；　while　it　prohibits　those　of　the

workmen。　We　have　no　acts　of　parliament　against　combining　to　lower

the　price　of　work；　but　many　against　combining　to　raise　it。　In　all

such　disputes　the　masters　can　hold　out　much　longer。　A　landlord；　a

farmer；　a　master　manufacturer；　a　merchant；　though　they　did　not

employ　a　single　workman；　could　generally　live　a　year　or　two　upon

the　stocks　which　they　have　already　acquired。　Many　workmen　could

not　subsist　a　week；　few　could　subsist　a　month；　and　scarce　any　a

year　without　employment。　In　the　long　run　the　workman　may　be　as

necessary　to　his　master　as　his　master　is　to　him；　but　the

necessity　is　not　so　immediate。

　　　　　We　rarely　hear；　it　has　been　said；　of　the　combinations　of

masters；　though　frequently　of　those　of　workmen。　But　whoever

imagines；　upon　this　account；　that　masters　rarely　combine；　is　as

ignorant　of　the　world　as　of　the　subject。　Masters　are　always　and

everywhere　in　a　sort　of　tacit；　but　constant　and　uniform

combination；　not　to　raise　the　wages　of　labour　above　their　actual

rate。　To　violate　this　combination　is　everywhere　a　most　unpopular

action；　and　a　sort　of　reproach　to　a　master　among　his　neighbours

and　equals。　We　seldom；　indeed；　hear　of　this　combination；　because

it　is　the　usual；　and　one　may　say；　the　natural　state　of　things；

which　nobody　ever　hears　of。　Masters；　too；　sometimes　enter　into

particular　combinations　to　sink　the　wages　of　labour　even　below

this　rate。　These　are　always　conducted　with　the　utmost　silence　and

secrecy；　till　the　moment　of　execution；　and　when　the　workmen

yield；　as　they　sometimes　do；　without　resistance；　though　severely

felt　by　them；　they　are　never　heard　of　by　other　people。　Such

combinations；　however；　are　frequently　resisted　by　a　contrary

defensive　combination　of　the　workmen；　who　sometimes　too；　without

any　provocation　of　this　kind；　combine　of　their　own　accord　to

raise　the　price　of　their　labour。　Their　usual　pretences　are；

sometimes　the　high　price　of　provisions；　sometimes　the　great

profit　which　their　masters　make　by　their　work。　But　whether　their

combinations　be　offensive　or　defensive；　they　are　always

abundantly　heard　of。　In　order　to　bring　the　point　to　a　speedy

decision；　they　have　always　recourse　to　the　loudest　clamour；　and

sometimes　to　the　most　shocking　violence　and　outrage。　They　are

desperate；　and　act　with　the　folly　and　extravagance　of　des