a history of science-1-第19章
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d for many centuries。 Yet； as we have said； some genius of prehistoric Egypt conceived the idea and put it into practical execution； and the hieroglyphic writing of which the Egyptians were in full possession at the very beginning of what we term the historical period made use of this phonetic system along with the ideographic system already described。 So fond were the Egyptians of their pictorial symbols used ideographically that they clung to them persistently throughout the entire period of Egyptian history。 They used symbols as phonetic equivalents very frequently； but they never learned to depend upon them exclusively。 The scribe always interspersed his phonetic signs with some other signs intended as graphic aids。 After spelling a word out in full； he added a picture； sometimes even two or three pictures； representative of the individual thing； or at least of the type of thing to which the word belongs。 Two or three illustrations will make this clear。 Thus qeften； monkey； is spelled out in full； but the picture of a monkey is added as a determinative； second； qenu； cavalry； after being spelled； is made unequivocal by the introduction of a picture of a horse； third； temati； wings； though spelled elaborately； has pictures of wings added； and fourth； tatu； quadrupeds； after being spelled； has a picture of a quadruped； and then the picture of a hide； which is the usual determinative of a quadruped； followed by three dashes to indicate the plural number。 It must not be supposed； however； that it was a mere whim which led the Egyptians to the use of this system of determinatives。 There was sound reason back of it。 It amounted to no more than the expedient we adopt when we spell 〃to；〃 〃two；〃 or 〃too；〃 in indication of a single sound with three different meanings。 The Egyptian language abounds in words having more than one meaning； and in writing these it is obvious that some means of distinction is desirable。 The same thing occurs even more frequently in the Chinese language； which is monosyllabic。 The Chinese adopt a more clumsy expedient； supplying a different symbol for each of the meanings of a syllable； so that while the actual word…sounds of their speech are only a few hundreds in number； the characters of their written language mount high into the thousands。
BABYLONIAN WRITING While the civilization of the Nile Valley was developing this extraordinary system of hieroglyphics； the inhabitants of Babylonia were practising the art of writing along somewhat different lines。 It is certain that they began with picture…making； and that in due course they advanced to the development of the syllabary； but； unlike their Egyptian cousins； the men of Babylonia saw fit to discard the old system when they had perfected a better one。＇5＇ So at a very early day their writingas revealed to us now through the recent excavationshad ceased to have that pictorial aspect which distinguishes the Egyptian script。 What had originally been pictures of objectsfish； houses； and the likehad come to be represented by mere aggregations of wedge…shaped marks。 As the writing of the Babvlonians was chiefly inscribed on soft clay； the adaptation of this wedge…shaped mark in lieu of an ordinary line was probably a mere matter of convenience； since the sharp…cornered implement used in making the inscription naturally made a wedge…shaped impression in the clay。 That； however； is a detail。 The essential thing is that the Babylonian had so fully analyzed the speech…sounds that he felt entire confidence in them； and having selected a sufficient number of conventional characterseach made up of wedge…shaped linesto represent all the phonetic sounds of his language； spelled the words out in syllables and to some extent dispensed with the determinative signs which； as we have seen； played so prominent a part in the Egyptian writing。 His cousins the Assyrians used habitually a system of writing the foundation of which was an elaborate phonetic syllabary； a system； therefore； far removed from the old crude pictograph； and in some respects much more developed than the complicated Egyptian method； yet； after all； a system that stopped short of perfection by the wide gap that separates the syllabary from the true alphabet。 A brief analysis of speech sounds will aid us in understanding the real nature of the syllabary。 Let us take for consideration the consonantal sound represented by the letter b。 A moment's consideration will make it clear that this sound enters into a large number of syllables。 There are； for example； at least twenty vowel sounds in the English language； not to speak of certain digraphs； that is to say； each of the important vowels has from two to six sounds。 Each of these vowel sounds may enter into combination with the b sound alone to form three syllables； as ba； ab； bal； be； eb； bel； etc。 Thus there are at least sixty b…sound syllables。 But this is not the end； for other consonantal sounds may be associated in the syllables in such combinations as bad； bed； bar； bark； cab； etc。 As each of the other twenty odd consonantal sounds may enter into similar combinations； it is obvious that there are several hundreds of fundamental syllables to be taken into account in any syllabic system of writing。 For each of these syllables a symbol must be set aside and held in reserve as the representative of that particular sound。 A perfect syllabary； then； would require some hundred or more of symbols to represent b sounds alone； and since the sounds for c； d； f； and the rest are equally varied； the entire syllabary would run into thousands of characters； almost rivalling in complexity the Chinese system。 But in practice the most perfect syllabary； Such as that of the Babylonians； fell short of this degree of precision through ignoring the minor shades of sound； just as our own alphabet is content to represent some thirty vowel sounds by five letters； ignoring the fact that a； for example； has really half a dozen distinct phonetic values。 By such slurring of sounds the syllabary is reduced far below its ideal limits； yet even so it retains three or four hundred characters。 In point of fact； such a work as Professor Delitzsch's Assyrian Grammar＇6＇ presents signs for three hundred and thirty…four syllables； together with sundry alternative signs and determinatives to tax the memory of the would…be reader of Assyrian。 Let us take for example a few of the b sounds。 It has been explained that the basis of the Assyrian written character is a simple wedge…shaped or arrow…head mark。 Variously repeated and grouped； these marks make up the syllabic characters。 To learn some four hundred such signs as these was the task set； as an equivalent of learning the a b c's； to any primer class in old Assyria in the long generations when that land was the culture Centre of the world。 Nor was the task confined to the natives of Babylonia and Assyria alone。 About the fifteenth century B。C。； and probably for a long time before and after that period； the exceedingly complex syllabary of the Babylonians was the official means of communication throughout western Asia and between Asia and Egypt； as we know from the chance discovery of a collection of letters belonging to the Egyptian king Khun…aten； preserved at Tel…el…Amarna。 In the time of Ramses the Great the Babylonian writing was in all probability considered by a majority of the most highly civilized people in the world to be the most perfect script practicable。 Doubtless the average scribe of the time did not in the least realize the waste of energy involved in his labors； or ever suspect that there could be any better way of writing。 Yet the analysis of any one of these hundreds of syllables into its component phonetic elementshad any one been genius enough to make such analysis ould have given the key to simpler and better things。 But such an analysis was very hard to make； as the sequel shows。 Nor is the utility of such an analysis self…evident； as the experience of the Egyptians proved。 The vowel sound is so intimately linked with the consonantthe con…sonant； implying this intimate relation in its very namethat it seemed extremely difficult to give it individual recognition。 To set off the mere labial beginning of the sound by itself；
