a history of science-1-第14章

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ASTROLOGY　Beyond　marking　the　seasons；　the　chief　interests　that　actuated　the　Babylonian　astronomer　in　his　observations　were　astrological。　After　quoting　Diodorus　to　the　effect　that　the　Babylonian　priests　observed　the　position　of　certain　stars　in　order　to　cast　horoscopes；　Thompson　tells　us　that　from　a　very　early　day　the　very　name　Chaldean　became　synonymous　with　magician。　He　adds　that　〃from　Mesopotamia；　by　way　of　Greece　and　Rome；　a　certain　amount　of　Babylonian　astrology　made　its　way　among　the　nations　of　the　west；　and　it　is　quite　probable　that　many　superstitions　which　we　commonly　record　as　the　peculiar　product　of　western　civilization　took　their　origin　from　those　of　the　early　dwellers　on　the　alluvial　lands　of　Mesopotamia。　One　Assurbanipal；　king　of　Assyria　B。C。　668…626；　added　to　the　royal　library　at　Nineveh　his　contribution　of　tablets；　which　included　many　series　of　documents　which　related　exclusively　to　the　astrology　of　the　ancient　Babylonians；　who　in　turn　had　borrowed　it　with　modifications　from　the　Sumerian　invaders　of　the　country。　Among　these　must　be　mentioned　the　series　which　was　commonly　called　'the　Day　of　Bel；'　and　which　was　decreed　by　the　learned　to　have　been　written　in　the　time　of　the　great　Sargon　I。；　king　of　Agade；　3800　B。C。　With　such　ancient　works　as　these　to　guide　them；　the　profession　of　deducing　omens　from　daily　events　reached　such　a　pitch　of　importance　in　the　last　Assyrian　Empire　that　a　system　of　making　periodical　reports　came　into　being。　By　these　the　king　was　informed　of　all　the　occurrences　in　the　heavens　and　on　earth；　and　the　results　of　astrological　studies　in　respect　to　after　events。　The　heads　of　the　astrological　profession　were　men　of　high　rank　and　position；　and　their　office　was　hereditary。　The　variety　of　information　contained　in　these　reports　is　best　gathered　from　the　fact　that　they　were　sent　from　cities　as　far　removed　from　each　other　as　Assur　in　the　north　and　Erech　in　the　south；　and　it　can　only　be　assumed　that　they　were　despatched　by　runners；　or　men　mounted　on　swift　horses。　As　reports　also　came　from　Dilbat；　Kutba；　Nippur；　and　Bursippa；　all　cities　of　ancient　foundation；　the　king　was　probably　well　acquainted　with　the　general　course　of　events　in　his　empire。〃＇12＇　From　certain　passages　in　the　astrological　tablets；　Thompson　draws　the　interesting　conclusion　that　the　Chaldean　astronomers　were　acquainted　with　some　kind　of　a　machine　for　reckoning　time。　He　finds　in　one　of　the　tablets　a　phrase　which　he　interprets　to　mean　measure…governor；　and　he　infers　from　this　the　existence　of　a　kind　of　a　calculator。　He　calls　attention　also　to　the　fact　that　Sextus　Empiricus＇13＇　states　that　the　clepsydra　was　known　to　the　Chaldeans；　and　that　Herodotus　asserts　that　the　Greeks　borrowed　certain　measures　of　time　from　the　Babylonians。　He　finds　further　corroboration　in　the　fact　that　the　Babylonians　had　a　time…measure　by　which　they　divided　the　day　and　the　night；　a　measure　called　kasbu；　which　contained　two　hours。　In　a　report　relating　to　the　day　of　the　vernal　equinox；　it　is　stated　that　there　are　six　kasbu　of　the　day　and　six　kasbu　of　the　night。　While　the　astrologers　deduced　their　omens　from　all　the　celestial　bodies　known　to　them；　they　chiefly　gave　attention　to　the　moon；　noting　with　great　care　the　shape　of　its　horns；　and　deducing　such　a　conclusion　as　that　〃if　the　horns　are　pointed　the　king　will　overcome　whatever　he　goreth；〃　and　that　〃when　the　moon　is　low　at　its　appearance；　the　submission　（of　the　people）　of　a　far　country　will　come。〃＇14＇　The　relations　of　the　moon　and　sun　were　a　source　of　constant　observation；　it　being　noted　whether　the　sun　and　moon　were　seen　together　above　the　horizon；　whether　one　set　as　the　other　rose；　and　the　like。　And　whatever　the　phenomena；　there　was　always；　of　course；　a　direct　association　between　such　phenomena　and　the　well…being　of　human　kindin　particular　the　king；　at　whose　instance；　and　doubtless　at　whose　expense；　the　observations　were　carried　out。　From　omens　associated　with　the　heavenly　bodies　it　is　but　a　step　to　omens　based　upon　other　phenomena　of　nature；　and　we；　shall　see　in　a　moment　that　the　Babylonian　prophets　made　free　use　of　their　opportunities　in　this　direction　also。　But　before　we　turn　from　the　field　of　astronomy；　it　will　be　well　to　inform　ourselves　as　to　what　system　the　Chaldean　astronomer　had　invented　in　explanation　of　the　mechanics　of　the　universe。　Our　answer　to　this　inquiry　is　not　quite　as　definite　as　could　be　desired；　the　vagueness　of　the　records；　no　doubt；　coinciding　with　the　like　vagueness　in　the　minds　of　the　Chaldeans　themselves。　So　far　as　we　can　interpret　the　somewhat　mystical　references　that　have　come　down　to　us；　however；　the　Babylonian　cosmology　would　seem　to　have　represented　the　earth　as　a　circular　plane　surrounded　by　a　great　circular　river；　beyond　which　rose　an　impregnable　barrier　of　mountains；　and　resting　upon　an　infinite　sea　of　waters。　The　material　vault　of　the　heavens　was　supposed　to　find　support　upon　the　outlying　circle　of　mountains。　But　the　precise　mechanism　through　which　the　observed　revolution　of　the　heavenly　bodies　was　effected　remains　here；　as　with　the　Egyptian　cosmology；　somewhat　conjectural。　The　simple　fact　would　appear　to　be　that；　for　the　Chaldeans　as　for　the　Egyptians；　despite　their　most　careful　observations　of　the　tangible　phenomena　of　the　heavens；　no　really　satisfactory　mechanical　conception　of　the　cosmos　was　attainable。　We　shall　see　in　due　course　by　what　faltering　steps　the　European　imagination　advanced　from　the　crude　ideas　of　Egypt　and　Babylonia　to　the　relatively　clear　vision　of　Newton　and　Laplace。

CHALDEAN　MAGIC　We　turn　now　from　the　field　of　the　astrologer　to　the　closely　allied　province　of　Chaldean　magica　province　which　includes　the　other；　which；　indeed；　is　so　all…　encompassing　as　scarcely　to　leave　any　phase　of　Babylonian　thought　outside　its　bounds。　The　tablets　having　to　do　with　omens；　exorcisms；　and　the　like　magic　practices　make　up　an　astonishingly　large　proportion　of　the　Babylonian　records。　In　viewing　them　it　is　hard　to　avoid　the　conclusion　that　the　superstitions　which　they　evidenced　absolutely　dominated　the　life　of　the　Babylonians　of　every　degree。　Yet　it　must　not　be　forgotten　that　the　greatest　inconsistencies　everywhere　exist　between　the　superstitious　beliefs　of　a　people　and　the　practical　observances　of　that　people。　No　other　problem　is　so　difficult　for　the　historian　as　that　which　confronts　him　when　he　endeavors　to　penetrate　the　mysteries　of　an　alien　religion；　and　when；　as　in　the　present　case；　the　superstitions　involved　have　been　transmitted　from　generation　to　generation；　their　exact　practical　phases　as　interpreted　by　any　particular　generation　must　be　somewhat　problematical。　The　tablets　upon　which　our　knowledge　of　these　omens　is　based　are　many　of　them　from　the　libraries　of　the　later　kings　of　Nineveh；　but　the　omens　themselves　are；　in　such　cases；　inscribed　in　the　original　Accadian　form　in　which　they　have　come　down　from　remote　ages；　accompanied　by　an　Assyrian　translation。　Thus　the　superstitions　involved　had　back　of　them　hundreds　of　years；　even　thousands　of　years；　of　precedent；　and　we　need　not　doubt　that　the　ideas　with　which　they　are　associated　were　interwoven　with　almost　every　thought　and　deed　of　the　life　of　the　people。　Professor　Sayce　assures　us　that　the　Assyrians　and　Babylonians　counted　no　fewer　than　three　hundred　spirits　of　heaven；　and　six　hundred　spirits　of　earth。　〃Like　the　Jews　of　the　Talmud；〃　he　says；　〃they　believed　that　the　world　was　swarming　with　noxious　spirits；　who　produced　the　various　diseases　to　which　man　is　liable；　and　might　be　swallowed　with　the　food　and　drink　which　support　life。〃　Fox　Talbot　was　inclined　to　believe　that　exorcisms　were　the　exclusive　means　used　to　drive　away　the　tormenting　spirits。　This　seems　unlikely；　considering　the　uniform　association　of　drugs　with　the　magical　practices　among　their　people。　Yet　there　is　certainly　a　strange　silence　of　the　tablets　in　regard　to　medicine。　Talbot　tells　us　that　sometimes　divine　images　were　brought　into　the　sick…chamber；　and　written　texts　taken　from　holy　books　were　placed　on　the　walls　and　bound　around　the　sick　man's　members。　If　these　failed；　recourse　was　had　to　the　influence　of　the　mamit；　which　the　evil　powers　were　unable　to　resist。　On　a　tablet；　written　in　the　Accadian　language　only；　the　Assyrian　version　being　taken；　however；　was　found　the　fo