a history of science-1-第13章

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at　scientific　heritage　Europe　received　from　the　Orient；　for　in　the　records　of　Babylonian　science　we　have　to　do　with　the　Eastern　mind　at　its　best。　Let　us　turn　to　the　specific　inquiry　as　to　the　achievements　of　the　Chaldean　scientist　whose　fame　so　dazzled　the　eyes　of　his　contemporaries　of　the　classic　world。

BABYLONIAN　ASTRONOMY　Our　first　concern　naturally　is　astronomy；　this　being　here；　as　in　Egypt；　the　first…born　and　the　most　important　of　the　sciences。　The　fame　of　the　Chaldean　astronomer　was　indeed　what　chiefly　commanded　the　admiration　of　the　Greeks；　and　it　was　through　the　results　of　astronomical　observations　that　Babylonia　transmitted　her　most　important　influences　to　the　Western　world。　〃Our　division　of　time　is　of　Babylonian　origin；〃　says　Hornmel；＇7＇　〃to　Babylonia　we　owe　the　week　of　seven　days；　with　the　names　of　the　planets　for　the　days　of　the　week；　and　the　division　into　hours　and　months。〃　Hence　the　almost　personal　interest　which　we　of　to…day　must　needs　feel　in　the　efforts　of　the　Babylonian　star…gazer。　It　must　not　be　supposed；　however；　that　the　Chaldean　astronomer　had　made　any　very　extraordinary　advances　upon　the　knowledge　of　the　Egyptian　〃watchers　of　the　night。〃　After　all；　it　required　patient　observation　rather　than　any　peculiar　genius　in　the　observer　to　note　in　the　course　of　time　such　broad　astronomical　conditions　as　the　regularity　of　the　moon's　phases；　and　the　relation　of　the　lunar　periods　to　the　longer　periodical　oscillations　of　the　sun。　Nor　could　the　curious　wanderings　of　the　planets　escape　the　attention　of　even　a　moderately　keen　observer。　The　chief　distinction　between　the　Chaldean　and　Egyptian　astronomers　appears　to　have　consisted　in　the　relative　importance　they　attached　to　various　of　the　phenomena　which　they　both　observed。　The　Egyptian；　as　we　have　seen；　centred　his　attention　upon　the　sun。　That　luminary　was　the　abode　of　one　of　his　most　important　gods。　His　worship　was　essentially　solar。　The　Babylonian；　on　the　other　hand；　appears　to　have　been　peculiarly　impressed　with　the　importance　of　the　moon。　He　could　not；　of　course；　overlook　the　attention…compelling　fact　of　the　solar　year；　but　his　unit　of　time　was　the　lunar　period　of　thirty　days；　and　his　year　consisted　of　twelve　lunar　periods；　or　360　days。　He　was　perfectly　aware；　however；　that　this　period　did　not　coincide　with　the　actual　year；　but　the　relative　unimportance　which　he　ascribed　to　the　solar　year　is　evidenced　by　the　fact　that　he　interpolated　an　added　month　to　adjust　the　calendar　only　once　in　six　years。　Indeed；　it　would　appear　that　the　Babylonians　and　Assyrians　did　not　adopt　precisely　the　same　method　of　adjusting　the　calendar；　since　the　Babylonians　had　two　intercular　months　called　Elul　and　Adar；　whereas　the　Assyrians　had　only　a　single　such　month；　called　the　second　Adar。＇8＇　（The　Ve'Adar　of　the　Hebrews。）　This　diversity　further　emphasizes　the　fact　that　it　was　the　lunar　period　which　received　chief　attention；　the　adjustment　of　this　period　with　the　solar　seasons　being　a　necessary　expedient　of　secondary　importance。　It　is　held　that　these　lunar　periods　have　often　been　made　to　do　service　for　years　in　the　Babylonian　computations　and　in　the　allied　computations　of　the　early　Hebrews。　The　lives　of　the　Hebrew　patriarchs；　for　example；　as　recorded　in　the　Bible；　are　perhaps　reckoned　in　lunar　〃years。〃　Divided　by　twelve；　the　〃years〃　of　Methuselah　accord　fairly　with　the　usual　experience　of　mankind。　Yet；　on　the　other　hand；　the　convenience　of　the　solar　year　in　computing　long　periods　of　time　was　not　unrecognized；　since　this　period　is　utilized　in　reckoning　the　reigns　of　the　Assyrian　kings。　It　may　be　added　that　the　reign　of　a　king　〃was　not　reckoned　from　the　day　of　his　accession；　but　from　the　Assyrian　new　year's　day；　either　before　or　after　the　day　of　accession。　There　does　not　appear　to　have　been　any　fixed　rule　as　to　which　new　year's　day　should　be　chosen；　but　from　the　number　of　known　cases；　it　appears　to　have　been　the　general　practice　to　count　the　reigning　years　from　the　new　year's　day　nearest　the　accession；　and　to　call　the　period　between　the　accession　day　and　the　first　new　year's　day　'the　beginning　of　the　reign；'　when　the　year　from　the　new　year's　day　was　called　the　first　year；　and　the　following　ones　were　brought　successively　from　it。　Notwithstanding；　in　the　dates　of　several　Assyrian　and　Babylonian　sovereigns　there　are　cases　of　the　year　of　accession　being　considered　as　the　first　year；　thus　giving　two　reckonings　for　the　reigns　of　various　monarchs；　among　others；　Shalmaneser；　Sennacherib；　Nebuchadrezzar。〃＇9＇　This　uncertainty　as　to　the　years　of　reckoning　again　emphasizes　the　fact　that　the　solar　year　did　not　have　for　the　Assyrian　chronology　quite　the　same　significance　that　it　has　for　us。　The　Assyrian　month　commenced　on　the　evening　when　the　new　moon　was　first　observed；　or；　in　case　the　moon　was　not　visible；　the　new　month　started　thirty　days　after　the　last　month。　Since　the　actual　lunar　period　is　about　twenty…nine　and　one…half　days；　a　practical　adjustment　was　required　between　the　months　themselves；　and　this　was　probably　effected　by　counting　alternate　months　as　Only　29　days　in　length。　Mr。　R。　Campbell　Thompson＇10＇　is　led　by　his　studies　of　the　astrological　tablets　to　emphasize　this　fact。　He　believes　that　〃the　object　of　the　astrological　reports　which　related　to　the　appearance　of　the　moon　and　sun　was　to　help　determine　and　foretell　the　length　of　the　lunar　month。〃　Mr。　Thompson　believes　also　that　there　is　evidence　to　show　that　the　interculary　month　was　added　at　a　period　less　than　six　years。　In　point　of　fact；　it　does　not　appear　to　be　quite　clearly　established　as　to　precisely　how　the　adjustment　of　days　with　the　lunar　months；　and　lunar　months　with　the　solar　year；　was　effected。　It　is　clear；　however；　according　to　Smith；　〃that　the　first　28　days　of　every　month　were　divided　into　four　weeks　of　seven　days　each；　the　seventh；　fourteenth；　twenty…first；　twenty…eighth　days　respectively　being　Sabbaths；　and　that　there　was　a　general　prohibition　of　work　on　these　days。〃　Here；　of　course；　is　the　foundation　of　the　Hebrew　system　of　Sabbatical　days　which　we　have　inherited。　The　sacredness　of　the　number　seven　itselfthe　belief　in　which　has　not　been　quite　shaken　off　even　to　this　day　was　deduced　by　the　Assyrian　astronomer　from　his　observation　of　the　seven　planetary　bodiesnamely；　Sin　（the　moon）；　Samas　（the　sun）；　Umunpawddu　（Jupiter）；　Dilbat　（Venus）；　Kaimanu　（Saturn）；　Gudud　（Mercury）；　Mustabarru…mutanu　（Mars）。＇11＇　Twelve　lunar　periods；　making　up　approximately　the　solar　year；　gave　peculiar　importance　to　the　number　twelve　also。　Thus　the　zodiac　was　divided　into　twelve　signs　which　astronomers　of　all　subsequent　times　have　continued　to　recognize；　and　the　duodecimal　system　of　counting　took　precedence　with　the　Babylonian　mathematicians　over　the　more　primitive　and；　as　it　seems　to　us；　more　satisfactory　decimal　system。　Another　discrepancy　between　the　Babylonian　and　Egyptian　years　appears　in　the　fact　that　the　Babylonian　new　year　dates　from　about　the　period　of　the　vernal　equinox　and　not　from　the　solstice。　Lockyer　associates　this　with　the　fact　that　the　periodical　inundation　of　the　Tigris　and　Euphrates　occurs　about　the　equinoctial　period；　whereas；　as　we　have　seen；　the　Nile　flood　comes　at　the　time　of　the　solstice。　It　is　but　natural　that　so　important　a　phenomenon　as　the　Nile　flood　should　make　a　strong　impression　upon　the　minds　of　a　people　living　in　a　valley。　The　fact　that　occasional　excessive　inundations　have　led　to　most　disastrous　results　is　evidenced　in　the　incorporation　of　stories　of　the　almost　total　destruction　of　mankind　by　such　floods　among　the　myth　tales　of　all　peoples　who　reside　in　valley　countries。　The　flooding　of　the　Tigris　and　Euphrates　had　not；　it　is　true；　quite　the　same　significance　for　the　Mesopotamians　that　the　Nile　flood　had　for　the　Egyptians。　Nevertheless　it　was　a　most　important　phenomenon；　and　may　very　readily　be　imagined　to　have　been　the　most　tangible　index　to　the　seasons。　But　in　recognizing　the　time　of　the　inundations　and　the　vernal　equinox；　the　Assyrians　did　not　dethrone　the　moon　from　its　accustomed　precedence；　for　the　year　was　reckoned　as　commencing　not　precisely　at　the　vernal　equinox；　but　at　the　new　moon　next　before　the　equinox。

ASTROLOGY　Beyond　marking　the　seasons；　the　chief　interests　that　actuated　the　Babylonian　astronomer　in　his　observations　were