history of philosophy-第88章

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the　conception　of　design　both　in　the　natural　and　in　the　spiritual　sphere　—　the　former　involving　the
idea　of　life；　and　the　latter　that　of　spirit　and　freedom　—　only　reaches　to　the　abstraction　of　a　nature
undetermined　in　itself；　to　sensation；　mechanism；　self…seeking；　and　utility。　It　is　this　then　that　we　shall
have　to　make　evident　in　the　positive　side　of　French　philosophy。　In　their　political　constitutions　the
French　have；　it　is　true；　started　from　abstractions；　but　they　have　done　so　as　from　universal　thoughts；
which　are　the　negative　of　reality；　the　English；　on　the　other　hand；　proceed　from　concrete　reality；
from　the　unwieldy　structure　of　their　constitution；　just　as　their　writers　even　have　not　attained　to
universal　principles。　What　Luther　began　in　the　heart　only　and　in　the　feelings　—　the　freedom　of　spirit
which；　unconscious　of　its　simple　root；　does　not　comprehend　itself；　and　yet　is　the　very　universal
itself；　for　which　all　content　disappears　in　the　thought；　that　fills　itself　with　itself　—　these　universal
determinations　and　thoughts　the　French　asserted　and　steadfastly　adhered　to：　they　are　universal
principles；　in　the　form　of　the　conviction　of　the　individual　in　himself。　Freedom　becomes　the
condition　of　the　world；　connects　itself　with　the　world's　history　and　forms　epochs　in　the　same；　it　is
the　concrete　freedom　of　the　spirit；　a　concrete　universality；　fundamental　principles　as　regards　the
concrete　now　take　the　place　of　the　abstract　metaphysic　of　Descartes。　Among　the　Germans　we
find　mere　chatter；　they　would　have　liked　to　offer　explanations　also；　but　all　they　have　to　give　is　in
the　form　of　miserable　phenomena　and　individualism。　The　French；　from　their　starting…point　of　the
thought　of　universality；　and　the　German　liberty　of　conscience　starting　from　the　conscience　which
teaches　us　to　“Prove　all　things；”　to　“hold　fast　that　which　is　good；”　have；　however；　joined　hands
with　one　another；　or　they　follow　the　same　path。　Only　the　French；　as　though　they　were　without
conscience；　have　made　short　work　of　everything；　and　have　systematically　adhered　to　a　definite
thought　—　the　physiocratic　system；　while　the　Germans　wish　to　leave　themselves　a　free　retreat；　and
examine　from　the　standpoint　of　conscience　whether　a　certain　course　is　permissible。　The　French
warred　against　the　speculative　Notion　with　the　spirit；　the　Germans　did　so　with　the　understanding。
We　find　in　the　French　a　deep　all…embracing　philosophic　need；　different　from　anything　in　the　English
and　Scotch　and　even　in　the　Germans；　and　full　of　vitality：　it　is　a　universal　concrete　view　of　all　that
exists；　with　entire　independence　both　of　all　authority　and　of　all　abstract　metaphysics。　The　method
employed　is　that　of　development　from　perception；　from　the　heart；　it　is　a　comprehensive　view　of　the
entire　matter；　which　keeps　the　whole　ever　in　sight；　and　seeks　to　uphold　and　attain　to　it。

This　healthy　human　understanding；　this　sound　reason；　with　its　content　taken　from　the　human　breast；
from　natural　feeling；　has　directed　itself　against　the　religious　side　of　things　in　various　moments：　on
the　one　hand　and　first　of　all；　as　French　philosophy；　it　did　so　against　the　Catholic　religion；　the　fetters
of　superstition　and　of　the　hierarchy；　on　the　other　hand；　in　less　pronounced　form；　as　the　German
“illumination；”　against　the　Protestant　religion；　in　as　far　as　it　has　a　content　which　it　has　derived
from　revelation；　from　ecclesiastical　authority　in　general。　On　the　one　hand　the　form　of　authority　in
general　was　challenged；　and　on　the　other　hand　its　matter。　The　content　can　be　easily　enough
disposed　of　by　this　form　of　thought；　which　is　not　what　we　understand　by　reason；　but　which　must
be　termed　understanding；　it　is　easy　for　the　understanding　to　show　objections　to　the　ultimate
principles　of　what　can　be　comprehended　only　by　means　of　speculation。　The　understanding　has
thus　tried　the　content　of　religion　by　its　standard；　and　has　condemned　it；　the　understanding
proceeds　in　the　same　way　against　a　concrete　philosophy。　What　of　religion　has　in　many　theologies
been　very　commonly　left　remaining　is　what　is　termed　theism；　faith　in　general；　this　is　the　same
content　which　is　found　also　in　Mohammedanism。　But　along　with　this　attack　upon　religion　on　the
part　of　the　reasoning　understanding　there　has　been　also　a　movement　towards　materialism；　atheism
and　naturalism。　It　is　true　that　we　should　not　make　the　charge　of　atheism　lightly；　for　it　is　a　very
common　occurrence　that　an　individual　whose　ideas　about　God　differ　from　those　of　other　people　is
charged　with　lack　of　religion；　or　even　with　atheism。　But　here　it　really　is　the　case　that　this
philosophy　has　developed　into　atheism；　and　has　defined　matter；　nature；　&c。；　as　that　which　is　to　be
taken　as　the　ultimate；　the　active；　and　the　efficient。　Some　Frenchmen；　Rousseau　for　instance；　are
not；　however；　to　be　included　with　the　rest；　one　of　this　author's　works；　“The　Confession　of　Faith　of
a　Vicar；”　（1）　contains　the　very　same　theism　which　is　found　in　German　theologians。　Thus　French
metaphysics　finds　a　parallel　not　only　in　Spinoza　（supra；　p。　382）　but　also　in　the　German
metaphysics　of　Wolff。　Other　Frenchmen　have　confessedly　gone　over　to　naturalism；　among　them　is
specially　to　be　mentioned　Mirabaud；　to　whom　the　Système　de　la　Nature　is　attributed。

In　what　has　been　termed　French　philosophy；　represented　by　Voltaire；　Montesquieu；　Rousseau；
d'Alembert；　Diderot；　and　in　what　subsequently　appeared　in　Germany　as　the　Aufkl？rung；　and　has
been　also　stigmatized　as　atheism；　we　may　now　distinguish　three　aspects；　first；　the　negative　side；　to
which　most　exception　has　been　taken；　secondly；　the　positive　side；　thirdly；　the　philosophical；
metaphysical　side。



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　1。　THE　NEGATIVE　ASPECT。

Justice　must　be　done　even　to　this　negative　side；　as　to　everything　else；　what　is　substantial　in　it　is　the
attack　of　the　reasoning　instinct　against　a　condition　of　degeneracy；　I　may　even　say　of　utter　and
universal　falsehood；　for　instance；　against　the　positive　side　of　a　religion　that　has　become　wooden
and　lifeless。　What　we　call　religion　is　firm　faith；　conviction　that　there　is　a　God；　if　this　is　faith　in　the
doctrines　of　Christianity；　it　is　more　or　less　abstracted　from。　But　in　this　attack　against　religion　we
have　to　think　of　something　quite　different　from　the　above；　in　what　we　find　here；　the　positive　of
religion　is　the　negative　of　reason。　If　we　would　understand　the　feeling　of　indignation　to　which　these
writers　give　utterance；　we　must　keep　before　our　eyes　the　state　of　religion　in　those　days；　with　its
might　and　magnificence；　the　corruption　of　its　manners；　its　avarice；　its　ambition；　its　luxury；　for　which
nevertheless　reverence　was　claimed　—　a　state　of　contradiction　present　and　existent。　We　perceive
into　what　a　frightful　condition　of　formalism　and　deadness　positive　religion　had　sunk；　as　had　the
bonds　of　society　as　well；　the　means　employed　for　the　administration　of　justice；　the　power　of　the
state。　This　French　philosophy　also　attacked　the　state；　it　assailed　prejudices　and　superstition；
especially　the　depravity　of　civic　life；　of　court　manners　and　of　Government　officials；　it　laid　hold　of
and　brought　to　light　the　evil；　the　ridiculous；　the　base；　and　exposed　the　whole　tissue　of　hypocrisy
and　unjust　power　to　the　derision；　the　contempt　and　the　hatred　of　the　world　at　large；　and　thus
brought　men's　minds　and　hearts　into　a　state　of　indifference　to　the　idols　of　the　world　and　indignation
against　them。　Old　institutions；　which　in　the　sense　of　self…conscious　freedom　and　humanity　that　had
developed；　no　longer　found　a　place；　and　which　had　formerly　been　founded　and　upheld　by　mutual
good　feeling　and　the　obtuseness　of　a　consciousness　unconscious　of　self；　institutions　which　were　no
longer　in　harmony　with　the　spirit　that　had　established　them；　and　now；　in　consequence　of　the
advance　that　had　been　made　in　scientific　culture；　were　bound　to　make　good　to　reason　their　claim
to　be　sacred　and　just；　—　this　was　the　formalism　that　those　philosophers　overthrew。　In　making　their
attacks；　they　wrote　sometimes　with　reasoned　argument；　sometimes　satirically；　sometimes　in　the
language　of　plain　common…sense；　and　they　did　not　wage　war　on　what　we　call　religion；　that；　was
left　quite　unharmed；　and　its　claims　were　urged