history of philosophy-第86章
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2。 JAMES BEATTIE。
James Beattie； born 1735； was a professor of moral philosophy in Edinburgh and Aberdeen； and
died in 1803。 He likewise made common…sense the source of all knowledge。 〃The common…sense
of the plain human understanding is the source of all morality； of all religion； and all certainty。 The
confirmation of common…sense must be added to the testimony of our senses。 The truth is what the
necessities of my nature call upon me to believe。 Belief signifies conviction in the case of truths
which are certain； in that of those which are probable； approbation。 The truth which is certain is
known by means of intuition； the probable truth by means of proofs。〃（3） Such convictions as are
quite certain form the basis of actions。
3。 JAMES OSWALD。
James Oswald； a Scottish clergyman； made use of an expression which indicates that we have the
principles just mentioned as facts existing within us。（4） 〃The existence of the Divine Being is
（according to him） a fact absolutely raised above all reasoning and all doubt； and immediately
certain for the common…sense of morality。〃（5） The same principle was likewise established in
Germany at this time … an inward revelation； a knowledge of the conscience； and specially of God
and His Being。
4。 DUGALD STEWART。
To this school also belong Dugald Stewart； Edward Search；（9） Ferguson； and Hutcheson； most of
whom have written on morals。 The political economist Adam Smith from this point of view is
likewise a philosopher； and the best known of them all。 This Scottish philosophy is now given forth
in Germany as something new。 It is a popular philosophy； which； on the one hand； has the great
merit of seeking in man； and in his consciousness； for the source of all that should be held by him
as true； the immanence of what should be by him esteemed。 The content is at the same time a
concrete content； in a certain degree； it is the antithesis of metaphysics proper； of the wandering
about in abstract determinations of the understanding。 Of these Scots； Dugald Stewart； who is
living still；（10） appears to be the last and least significant； in them all there is the same
ground…work to be found； the same circle of reflection； namely； an a priori philosophy； though not
one which is to be pursued in a speculative way。 The general idea which pervades their principle is
that of the healthy human understanding； to this they have added benevolent desires； sympathy； a
moral sense； and from such grounds composed very excellent moral writings。 That is certainly all
very well in order to understand approximately； up to a certain degree of culture； what universal
thoughts are； in order to narrate their history； to appeal to examples； and to explain them； but
further it does not extend。
In more recent times this Scottish philosophy has passed to France； and Professor Royer…Collard；
now president of the Second Chamber；（11） as also his disciple； Jouffroy； in conformity with it；
pass from the facts of consciousness through cultured reasoning and experience； to a further stage
in development。 What by the French is called Idéologie （supra； p。 308） has also its place here； it
is abstract metaphysics； in so far as it is an enumeration and analysis of the most simple
thought…determinations。 They are not treated dialectically； but from our reflection； from our
thoughts； the material is derived； and in this the determinations therein contained are demonstrated。
1。 Tennemann's Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie von Wendt； § 371； p。 442。
2。 Rixner： Handbuch der Geschicte der Philosophie； Vol。 III。 § 119； p。 259； ct。 Thomas Reid； An
Inquiry into the human mind on the principles of common sense （Edinburgh； 1810）； chap。 i。 Sect。
4； pp。 19； 20 （translated into German； Leipzig； 1782； pp。 17； 18）； chap。 vi。 Sect。 20； pp。
372…375 （pp。 310； 311）； &c。
3。 Rixner： Handbuch der Geschichte der Philosophie； Vol。 III。 § 120； pp。 261； 262； cf。 James
Beattie： Essays on the nature and immutability of Truth； &c。 （Edinburh； 1772）； Pt。 I。； chap。 i。； pp。
18…31 （translated into German； Copenhagen and Leipzig； 1772； pp。 24…42）； chap。 ii。 Sect。 2； pp。
37…42 （pp。 49…55）； &c。
4。 Cf。 James Oswald： An Appeal of common…sense in behalf of religion （Edinburgh； 1772）； Vol。 I。
Book I。 Introduction； p。 12 （translated by Wilmsen； Leipzig； 1774； p。 11）。
5。 Rixner； ibidem； § 121； p。 262； cf。 James Oswald； ibidem； Vol。 II。 Book II。 chap。 i。 pp。 50； 51
（pp。 54； 55）。
6。 The name assumed by Abraham Tucker。…＇Translator's note。＇
7。 Lectures of 1825…1826。
8。 Lectures of 1829…1830。
9。 The name assumed by Abraham Tucker。…＇Translator's note。＇
10。 Lectures of 1825…1826。
11。 Lectures of 1829…1830。
Section Two： Period of the Thinking Understanding
Chapter II。 — Transition Period
C。 French Philosophy
We pass onto the French philosophy； the relation it bears to metaphysics is this； that while man as
a metaphysician stands to himself in the attitude of a layman or outsider； French philosophy does
away with the lay or outside position in regard alike to politics； religion； and philosophy。 Two
forms have to be mentioned which are of the greatest importance in respect to culture — French
philosophy and the Aufkl？rung。 With the English we saw a certain idealism only： this was either
formal； as the mere general translation of Being into Being…for…another； i。e。； into perceptibility； or
else what is implicit in this perceptibility； instincts； impulses； habits； &c。 — blind determinate forces；
a return into self…consciousness； which itself appears as a physical thing。 In that first idealism the
whole finitude and extension of appearances； of sensations； and likewise of thoughts and
determinate fixed conceptions； remain just what they are in the unphilosophic consciousness。 The
scepticism of Hume makes all that is universal sink into habits and instincts； i。e。； it consists in a
more simple synthesis of the phenomenal world； but these simpler elements； these instincts；
impulses； and forces； are just as much a fixed present existence in self…consciousness； unspiritual；
and without movement。 The French philosophy has more life； more movement； more spirit； it
would perhaps be more correct to describe it as full of life and spirit。 It is the absolute Notion；
which revolts against the whole reigning system of prevalent conceptions and established ideas；
which overthrows all that has settled into fixity； and acquires the consciousness of perfect liberty。
At the root of this idealistic activity lies the certainty that whatever is； whatever counts for anything
in itself； is all a matter of self…consciousness； and as to Notions （individual and isolated existences
ruling actual self…consciousness）； such as the Notions of good and evil； of power and riches； and
the fixed conceptions regarding faith in God and His relation to the world； His mode of
government and； further； the duties of self…consciousness towards Him — that all these are not
truths in themselves； having validity beyond the bounds of self…consciousness。 All these forms； the
real implicitude of the actual world and also of the supersensuous world； are therefore set aside in
this spirit conscious of itself。 It does not trouble itself seriously about those who admit the validity
of these conceptions just as they are； and accept them as true； respecting them as independent and
free apart from self…consciousness； but it speaks of such conceptions with intelligence and spirit；
that is to say； it asserts that self…consciousness by its activity is the first to make anything of them；
and to make that a something very different from what they profess to be； for the self…conscious
spirit only intellectual relations； these processes of formation and movement by means of its
self…consciousness； possess validity and interest。 This is the character of the Notion in its actuality；
what has reality for this all…perceiving and all…comprehending consciousness is held to be valid。
We must now consider what form existence takes for this absolutely comprehending self…
consciousness。 In the firs
