lecture iii-第9章

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advantages　are　rather　of　a　moral；　and　the　disadvantages　of　an
economic　character。　It　encourages；　no　doubt；　to　a　much　greater
degree　than　the　system　of　private　holdings；　the　feeling　of　mutual
interdependence　and　the　inclination　to　mutual　help；　without　which
no　society　can　exist。　But　it　is　a　manifest　error　to　speak　of　this
system　as　a　serious　barrier　to　pauperism。　For；　although　the
commoner　is　prevented　by　law　from　alienating　his　share；　he　may；
and　often　does；　dispose　of　it　in　favour　of　some　rich　neighbour；
who　in　time　of　want　has　offered　to　pay　the　amount　of　the
commoner's　taxes　on　condition　of　having　the　use　of　his　land。　If
the　Slavophils　were　right　in　their　opinion；　that；　thanks　to　the
system　of　the　mir；　pauperism　was　impossible　in　Russia；　we　should
certainly　not　hear　daily　of　the　so…called　〃Koulaks〃　eating　up　the
mir；　or；　what　comes　to　the　same　thing；　sacrificing　the　interests
of　the　community　to　their　own。
　　　　The　economic　disadvantages　which　the　system　presents　are　so
evident　that　I　need　scarcely　insist　upon　them。　Instead　of　giving
my　own　opinion　on　this　subject；　I　prefer　to　quote　the　words　of　a
Russian　economist；　who　is　far　from　belonging　to　the　much　decried
Manchester　School。　〃Agrarian　communism；　as　it　is　applied　in
Russia；〃　says　Professor　Ivanukov；　〃is　a　hindrance　to　the
investment　of　capital　in　agriculture；　and　to　the　introduction　of
a　more　thorough；　a　better　and　more　remunerative　system　of
cultivation；　for　the　strips　belonging　to　this　or　that　homestead
will　in　case　of　each　new　division　pass　into　strange　hands；　so
that　the　peasant　does　not　find　it　to　his　interest　to　lay　out
money　which　could　only　be　recovered　during　a　long　term　of
possession。〃　It　is　true　that　local　inquirers　have　been　able　to
produce　several　instances　in　which　peasant　commoners　have
introduced　a　somewhat　thorough　system　of　grass　sowing；*　but　we
must　not　forget　that　this　has　been　done　during　a　period　when　the
readjustment　of　lots　was　rare。
　　　　We　must　not　forget；　too；　one　great　disadvantage　of　the　mir
system；　which　consists　in　the　fact　that　wherever　it　exists；　the
pieces　of　land　belonging　to　the　same　holder　are　〃scattered　about
on　all　sides　of　the　township；　one　in　this　furlong　and　another　in
that；　intermixed；　and　it　might　almost　be　said；〃　writes　Mr
Seebohm；　〃entangled　together　as　though　some　one　blindfold　had
thrown　them　about　on　all　sides　of　him。〃　*
　　　　Several　Russian　economists　have　shown　that　this　defect　is　not
peculiar　to　the　mir；　but　is　to　be　found　in　the　system　of　small
holdings；*　as　if　these　small　holdings　had　not　inherited　it　from
their　direct　predecessor；　the　village　community。　What　is；
however；　of　far　more　importance　than　the　opinion　of　this　or　that
student　of　the　mir　is　the　fact　that　it　is　gradually　and
spontaneously　breaking　to　pieces。　There　is　no　doubt　that　a
general　redistribution　of　shares　has　not　taken　place；　at　least　in
the　more　fertile　area　of　the　black　soil；　since　the　year　of　the
peasants'　emancipation。　It　is　difficult　to　explain　this　solely　by
the　dislike　of　the　provincial　and　district　administrators　to　the
system；　the　unwillingness　of　the　powerful　minority　of　rich
peasants　to　proceed　to　a　new　division　is　recognised　on　all　sides；
and　quite　suffices　to　explain　the　difficulties　encountered　in　the
way　of　a　fresh　readjustment。　For　we　must　remember　that　the　law
requires　that　two…thirds　of　the　voters　shall　agree　on　any
decision　on　this　subject；　and　the　Koulaks；　although　in　a
minority；　are　sure　to　have　influence　enough　among　the　poorer
peasants；　who　are　their　debtors；　to　obtain　their　own　way　in　a
folkmote。
　　　　The　fact　that　a　movement　in　favour　of　a　re…division　of　the
common　lands　has　arisen　in　the　northern　and　central　provinces；
where　the　soil　is　poor；　and　the　in　come　which　the　peasant
receives　from　his　share　does　not　cover　the　amount　of　the　taxes　he
has　to　pay；　can　certainly　not　be　adduced　in　favour　of　the　idea　of
a　further　spontaneous　development　of　Russian　agrarian　communism。
　　　　The　majority　of　the　peasants　insist　on　such　a　readjustment；
so　that　they　may　have　fewer　taxes　to　pay；　and　not　because　they
long　to　see　the　great　principle　of　equality　become　the　ruling
power　of　the　world。　If　we　wish　to　point　to　a　really　spontaneous
movement　in　the　sphere　of　land…tenure；　it　must　certainly　be　to
that　which　has　induced　thousands　of　peasants　to　pay　back　the
money　which　was　advanced　to　them　by　the　Government　in　the　year　of
their　emancipation　to　enable　them　to　become　the　free　proprietors
of　the　soil。　I　have　already　mentioned　the　fact　that　five　million
roubles　have　been　repaid　to　the　Crown；　it　is　interesting　to　note
the　rate　at　which　this　repayment　has　been　made。　From　1861　to
1868；　according　to　Mr　Keuszler；　the　amount　of　money　paid　by
persons　wishing　to　exchange　their　common　rights　for　private
property；　hardly　formed　the　seven…hundredth　part　of　the　whole
sum。　From　1868　to　1872　it　had　amounted　to　10　per　cent；　from　1873
to　1877　to　33　1/2　per　cent；　the　rest　of　the　sum；　or　55　per　cent；
having　been　paid　back　during　the　years　1877　to　1881。*
　　　　If　this　steady　increase　is　not　considered　a　conclusive　proof；
I　must　decline　to　bring　forward　any　other；　not　even　the
disappearance　of　village　communities　in　the　neighbourhood　of　the
larger　towns；　such　as　St。　Petersburg；　Moscow；　and　even　Voroneg；
owing　to　the　fact　that　in　their　neighbourhood　high　farming　pays
best；　and　that　this　high　farming　is　impossible　without　a　change
in　the　system　of　land　property。
　　　　How　long　village　communities　will　exist　is　not　a　question
easy　to　answer。　The　Government　may　certainly　prevent　for　a　time
their　dissolution　by　some　artificial　measures；　like　those　taken
in　relation　to　the　undivided　household。　A　proposal　has　even　been
made　to　declare　that　the　common…land　shall　not　become　private
property　even　after　the　repayment　of　the　whole　sum　which　its
holder　owes　to　the　Government。　Such　a　measure　might；　indeed；　long
arrest　the　spontaneous　movement　which　produces　the　dissolution　of
this　archaic　form　of　agrarian　communism。
　　　　If　left　to　itself；　it　will　certainly　be　maintained　in　those
remote　parts　of　Russia　where　the　population　is　still　so　small　as
to　retard　agricultural　progress；　but　it　is　likely　soon　to
disappear　in　the　manufacturing　districts；　where　the　peasant
passes　more　time　in　the　factory　than　in　the　fields　and　where；
when　he　leaves　his　old　home；　he　has　to　find；　and　that　ofttimes
under　very　unsatisfactory　conditions；　some　partner　to　perform　his
share　of　field　labour。　It　is　also　more　than　probable　that　the
South　of　Russia；　the　true　granary　of　the　Empire；　will　soon　become
a　country　of　private　ownership　in　land。　The　system　of　the　mir；　as
I　have　already　said；　is　in　more　than　one　part　of　this　district　a
comparatively　modern　innovation。　The　Little　Russian　is　too　fond
of　independence　and　self…control　to　acquiesce　in　a　system　which
confines　his　industry　in　every　direction。
　　　　The　village　community；　that　venerable　survival　of　an　epoch
closely　akin　to　the　patriarchal；　will　disappear　in　Russia；　as　it
already　has　disappeared　in　other　countries　in　Europe　　in
England；　Germany；　and　Switzerland。　It　will　give　way　to　private
land；　unless；　and　this　is　not　very　likely　property　in　under
present　conditions；　it　be　completely　transformed　by　the　extension
of　communistic　principles　to　capital。　Those　who；　like　myself；　do
not　believe　in　the　possibility　of　leaps　and　bounds　in　matters　of
social　progress；　will　probably　consider　that　such　a　state　of
things　belongs　to　the　number　of　those　dreams；　the　practical
realisation　of　which　is　to　be　looked　for　only　in　a　remote　future。