lecture iii-第7章

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land。　The　first　assembly　makes　by…laws；　chooses　officers；　and
passes　measures　which　concern　the　common　good。　The　second
administers　the　lands　of　the　village；　appoints　those　entrusted
with　the　care　of　them；　and　distributes　to　the　several　partners
their　shares　in　the　commons。　The　laws　of　some　Swiss　cantons；
therefore；　establish　a　difference　between　the　〃politische
Gemeinde；〃　or　commune；　composed　of　all　the　male　inhabitants；　and
the　〃burgerliche　Gemeinde；〃　to　which　all　the　sharers　in　the
common　land；　male　and　female　alike；　belong。　Now　this　difference
is　unknown　in　Russia；　where　political　rights　are　exclusively
exercised　by　those　inhabitants　who　are　at　the　same　time　sharers
in　the　common　land。
　　　　The　officer　to　whom　the　assembly　entrusts　the　administration
of　the　village　is　called　the　village　elder。　We　find　the　same
officer　in　the　old　Russian　communes；　both　in　the　so…called　〃black
hundreds〃　in　other　words；　in　the　villages　inhabited　by
free…commoners　　and　also　on　the　lands　of　manorial　lords。
Monastic　charters；　among　other　documents；　very　frequently　mention
the　election　of　these　officers；　who　are　sometimes　called；
especially　in　the　South…Western　communes；　〃bourgmistr〃　　a　name
evidently　derived　from　the　German　burgermeister；　and　showing；　to
a　certain　extent；　the　influence　exercised　by　German　municipal　law
on　the　local　organisation　of　Lithuania　and　Little　Russia。
　　　　It　is　the　village　elder；　the　starosta；　who　represents　the
commune　in　its　relations　with　the　district　and　provincial
authorities。　It　is　he　who　collects　the　taxes；　exercises　some
supervision　over　the　way　in　which　the　commune　keeps　in　repair　the
roads　and　pubic　buildings；　sees　that　the　law　concerning
obligatory　fire　insurance　is　obeyed；　and　carries　into　effect　the
various　administrative　enactments　which　the　police　authorities
and　the　local　assemblies　of　the　zemstvo　are　very　liberal　in
creating。　But　the　most　important　functions　of　the　commune；　that
of　apportioning　personal　taxation　and　making　periodical
assessments　of　common　land；　are　performed　by　the　popular　assembly
or　mir。　Two…thirds　of　the　whole　number　of　voters　are　empowered　to
decide　whether　the　proper　time　has　come　or　not　for　a　new　general
allotment。　The　same　majority　is　also　required　whenever　the
division　of　the　common　land　into　private　property　has　to　be
decided　on。
　　　　Neither　the　assembly　nor　the　village　elder　has　any　judicial
authority；　but　the　village　elder　exercises；　to　a　certain　extent；
the　functions　of　a　public　notary；　for　he　gives　legal　validity　to
private　documents　and　deeds　by　affixing　to　them　the　village　seal。
　　　　A　regular　tribunal；　a　kind　of　court　leet；　is　formed　by　the
elective　judges　of　the　volost。　This　institution　is　an　innovation
introduced　by　the　emancipation　law；　at　least　so　far　as　it
assigns；　not　to　the　village；　but　to　the　larger　territorial
district；　the　volost；　the　sole　right　of　giving　judicial　decisions
in　civil　suits　and　in　misdemeanours　among　persons　belonging　to
the　peasant　class。　The　peculiar　feature　of　this　tribunal　is；　that
it　is　not　bound　to　follow　the　prescriptions　of　law；　but　those　of
custom。
　　　　Russia；　so　far　as　I　know；　is　the　only　European　country；　in
which　a　sort　of　〃personalitas　legum〃　is　still　acknowledged；　the
peasants　submitting　to　one　complex　code　of　legal　rules；　and　the
higher　classes　to　another。　What　is　no　less　characteristic　is　the
fact　that　the　customary　law　of　the　Russian　peasant　is　alone　the
genuine　Russian　law　　the　law　that　is　found　in　our　ancient　codes
（such　as　the　Pravda　of　Jaroslav；　in　the　judicial　charters　of
Novgorod　and　Pscov；　in　the　statute　of　Lithuania；　and　in　the　codes
of　Ivan　the　Third　and　of　Ivan　the　Terrible）；　whist　the　volumes　X
and　XV　（so…called）　of　the　general　collection　of　laws　（so　the
civil　and　criminal　codes　are　designated　in　Russia）　are　a　compound
partly　of　Russian；　partly　of　French；　partly　of　canon；　Byzantine
or　even　so…called　natural　law。
　　　　The　only　way　to　get　rid　of　this　dualism　in　matters　of
legislation　would　be　to　codify　the　customary　law　of　Russia；
introducing　into　it　the　changes　required　by　the　social
development　that　has　been　already　achieved　by　the　higher　classes。
But　such　does　not　seem　to　be　the　opinion　of　the　bureaucrats；　to
whom　has　been　intrusted　the　difficult　task　of　preparing　the　text
of　a　new　civil　and　criminal　code。　The　books　and　pamphlets
published　by　these　modern　Solons　express　an　opposite　view　and
would　seem　to　justify　the　supposition　that　the　double　law　will　be
scrupulously　preserved；　probably　with　the　object　of　perpetuating
the　misunderstanding　which　already　exists　between　the　lower　and
higher　classes　of　Russian　society。
　　　　The　volost　has　no　assembly　of　its　own；　but　it　has　its　chief
in　the　person　of　an　elected　elder　〃starschina；〃　to　whom　the
village　elders　are　subject　in　all　matters　concerning　the
collection　of　taxes　and　the　carrying　into　effect　of　laws　and
by…laws。
　　　　The　little　I　have　here　said　about　the　organisation　of　the
village　community　will　answer　the　end　I　have　in　view　of　placing
clearly　before　you　the　economic　arrangements　made　by　the　village
in　reference　to　the　common　lands。　The　relation　in　which　the
village　stands　to　them　is　not　that　of　proprietor。　They　belong
according　to　law　to　the　State　alone。　In　those　villages　which　are
occupied　by　the　so…called　〃State…peasants；〃　that　is　the　heirs　of
the　serfs　lately　belonging　to　the　〃public　domains；〃　no　means　have
been　adopted　to　allow　of　the　peasant　becoming　even　in　future　the
proprietor　of　the　soil。　Such；　however；　is　not　the　case　in　those
communes；　which　have　been　established　on　lands　lately　belonging
to　the　nobility。　As　soon　as　the　peasants　on　each　estate　have　paid
back　the　money　advanced　by　the　State　to　facilitate　the
acquisition　of　the　land　which　the　proprietor　was　forced　to　give
up　to　them；　they　become　the　legal　proprietors　of　the　soil　they
now　occupy。　This　payment　may　be　made　by　the　whole　commune　or　by
the　separate　households　which　belong　to　it。　Five　millions　of
roubles　had　been　already　devoted　to　this　purpose　up　to　the　year
1881；　later　statistics　are　still　wanting。　Each　time　that　the
payment　is　made　by　a　separate　household；　common　property　is　of
course　superseded　by　private　property　and　this　enactment　is
rightly　considered　by　Russian　publicists　as　prejudicial　to　the
further　maintenance　of　agrarian　communism。　*
　　　　The　commune　exercises　its　proprietary　rights　in　different
ways。　It　keeps　the　waste…land　and　forests　undivided；　and　makes
periodical　allotments　of　arable　and　meadow　land。　it　was　most
prejudicial　to　the　welfare　of　the　peasants　that　the　obligatory
expropriation　of　1861　did　not　extend　to　a　part　at　least　of　the
waste…land　of　the　manor；　held　previously　to　that　date　in　common
by　the　manorial　lord　and　his　serfs。　We　must　acknowledge　that　in
this　respect　the　government　of　the　old　French　monarchy；　that　of
Louis　XIII　and　of　Louis　XIV；　showed　a　far　greater　knowledge　of
the　economic　wants　of　the　agricultural　classes。　The　so…called
〃triages〃　secured　to　the　peasants　the　right　of　exclusive
enjoyment　to　at　least　a　third　of　the　manorial　wastes　and　woods。
Nothing　which　corresponds　to　those　triages　has　been　established
in　Russia。　The　result　of　this　can　be　seen　in　the　need　which　the
peasant　is　under　of　diminishing　year　by　year　the　number　of　his
cattle；　a　condition　of　things　which　has　already　re…acted　on　the
state　of　agriculture。　In　those　cases　where　the　village　has　had　no
access　to　the　waste　land；　it　has　been　obliged　to　carve　out　of　its
arable　ground　a　special　field　to　serve　as　a　common　pasture。　But
this　can　only　be　done　where　the　allotments　made　out　of　the
manorial　land　are　of　large　extent。　In　the　greater　number　of
villages　they　have　not　amounted　to　more　than　three　dessiatines　a
head；　and　the　commoners　have　been　forced　to　content　themselves
either　with　sending　their　cattle　on　to　the　〃Lammas〃　lands；　that
is；　the　arable　land　after　harvest；　or　with　renting　some　pasture
ground　from　a　neighbouring　squire。
　　　　As　for　the　forests；　allotments　out　of。　them　were　rarely　made；
at　least　in　our　Southern　provinces　where　woods　are　scarce；　and
the　peasant　is　quite　dependent　for　his　fuel　on　the　squire；　who
takes　advantage　of　this　fact；　and　secures　the　regular　performance