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第26章

autobiography and selected essays-第26章

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been tried under all sorts of conditions; as to time; place; and

people; with the same result; and he says with you; therefore; that

the law you have laid down must be a good one; and he must believe

it。



In science we do the same thing;the philosopher exercises

precisely the same faculties; though in a much more delicate

manner。  In scientific inquiry it becomes a matter of duty to

expose a supposed law to every possible kind of verification; and

to take care; moreover; that this is done intentionally; and not

left to a mere accident; as in the case of the apples。  And in

science; as in common life; our confidence in a law is in exact

proportion to the absence of variation in the result of our

experimental verifications。  For instance; if you let go your grasp

of an article you may have in your hand; it will immediately fall

to the ground。  That is a very common verification of one of the

best established laws of naturethat of gravitation。  The method

by which men of science establish the existence of that law is

exactly the same as that by which we have established the trivial

proposition about the sourness of hard and green apples。  But we

believe it in such an extensive; thorough; and unhesitating manner

because the universal experience of mankind verifies it; and we can

verify it ourselves at any time; and that is the strongest possible

foundation on which any natural law can rest。



So much; then; by way of proof that the method of establishing laws

in science is exactly the same as that pursued in common life。  Let

us now turn to another matter (though really it is but another

phase of the same question); and that is; the method by which; from

the relations of certain phenomena; we prove that some stand in the

position of causes towards the others。



I want to put the case clearly before you; and I will therefore

show you what I mean by another familiar example。  I will suppose

that one of you; on coming down in the morning to the parlor of

your house; finds that a tea…pot and some spoons which had been

left in the room on the previous evening are gone;the window is

open; and you observe the mark of a dirty hand on the window…frame;

and perhaps; in addition to that; you notice the impress of a hob…

nailed shoe on the gravel outside。  All these phenomena have struck

your attention instantly; and before two seconds have passed you

say; 〃Oh; somebody has broken open the window; entered the room;

and run off with the spoons and the tea…pot!〃  That speech is out

of your mouth in a moment。  And you will probably add; 〃I know

there has; I am quite sure of it!〃  You mean to say exactly what

you know; but in reality you are giving expression to what is; in

all essential particulars; an hypothesis。  You do not KNOW it at

all; it is nothing but an hypothesis rapidly framed in your own

mind。  And it is an hypothesis founded on a long train of

inductions and deductions。



What are those inductions and deductions; and how have you got at

this hypothesis?  You have observed in the first place; that the

window is open; but by a train of reasoning involving many

inductions and deductions; you have probably arrived long before at

the general lawand a very good one it isthat windows do not

open of themselves; and you therefore conclude that something has

opened the window。  A second general law that you have arrived at

in the same way is; that tea…pots and spoons do not go out of a

window spontaneously; and you are satisfied that; as they are not

now where you left them; they have been removed。  In the third

place; you look at the marks on the windowsill; and the shoe…marks

outside; and you say that in all previous experience the former

kind of mark has never been produced by anything else but the hand

of a human being; and the same experience shows that no other

animal but man at present wears shoes with hob…nails in them such

as would produce the marks in the gravel。  I do not know; even if

we could discover any of those 〃missing links〃 that are talked

about; that they would help us to any other conclusion!  At any

rate the law which states our present experience is strong enough

for my present purpose。  You next reach the conclusion that; as

these kind '89' of marks have not been left by any other animal than

man; or are liable to be formed in any other way than a man's hand

and shoe; the marks in question have been formed by a man in that

way。  You have; further; a general law; founded on observation and

experience; and that; too; is; I am sorry to say; a very universal

and unimpeachable one;that some men are thieves; and you assume

at once from all these premissesand that is what constitutes your

hypothesisthat the man who made the marks outside and on the

window…sill; opened the window; got into the room; and stole your

tea…pot and spoons。  You have now arrived at a vera causa;you

have assumed a cause which; it is plain; is competent to produce

all the phenomena you have observed。  You can explain all these

phenomena only by the hypothesis of a thief。  But that is a

hypothetical conclusion; of the justice of which you have no

absolute proof at all; it is only rendered highly probable by a

series of inductive and deductive reasonings。



I suppose your first action; assuming that you are a man of

ordinary common sense; and that you have established this

hypothesis to your own satisfaction; will very likely be to go off

for the police; and set them on the track of the burglar; with the

view to the recovery of your property。  But just as you are

starting with this object; some person comes in; and on learning

what you are about; says; 〃My good friend; you are going on a great

deal too fast。  How do you know that the man who really made the

marks took the spoons?  It might have been a monkey that took them;

and the man may have merely looked in afterwards。〃  You would

probably reply; 〃Well; that is all very well; but you see it is

contrary to all experience of the way tea…pots and spoons are

abstracted; so that; at any rate; your hypothesis is less probable

than mine。〃  While you are talking the thing over in this way;

another friend arrives; one of the good kind of people that I was

talking of a little while ago。  And he might say; 〃Oh; my dear sir;

you are certainly going on a great deal too fast。  You are most

presumptuous。  You admit that all these occurrences took place when

you were fast asleep; at a time when you could not possibly have

known anything about what was taking place。  How do you know that

the laws of Nature are not suspended during the night?  It may be

that there has been some kind of supernatural interference in this

case。〃  In point of fact; he declares that your hypothesis is one

of which you cannot at all demonstrate the truth; and that you are

by no means sure that the laws of Nature are the same when you are

asleep as when you are awake。



Well; now; you cannot at the moment answer that kind of reasoning。

You feel that your worthy friend has you somewhat at a

disadvantage。  You will feel perfectly convinced in your own mind;

however; that you are quite right; and you say to him; 〃My good

friend; I can only be guided by the natural probabilities of the

case; and if you will be kind enough to stand aside and permit me

to pass; I will go and fetch the police。〃  Well; we will suppose

that your journey is successful; and that by good luck you meet

with a policeman; that eventually the burglar is found with your

property on his person; and the marks correspond to his hand and to

his boots。  Probably any jury would consider those facts a very

good experimental verification of your hypothesis; touching the

cause of the abnormal phenomena observed in your parlor; and would

act accordingly。



Now; in this supposititious case; I have taken phenomena of a very

common kind; in order that you might see what are the different

steps in an ordinary pr

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