autobiography and selected essays-第25章

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and　were　often　led　into　confusing　the　symbol　with　the　thought　which

it　embodied。　　I　think　it　is　Locke　＇84＇　who　says　that　one…half　of　the

mistakes　of　philosophers　have　arisen　from　questions　about　words；

and　one　of　the　safest　ways　of　delivering　yourself　from　the　bondage

of　words　is；　to　know　how　ideas　look　in　words　to　which　you　are　not

accustomed。　　That　is　one　reason　for　the　study　of　language；　another

reason　is；　that　it　opens　new　fields　in　art　and　in　science。　　Another

is　the　practical　value　of　such　knowledge；　and　yet　another　is　this；

that　if　your　languages　are　properly　chosen；　from　the　time　of

learning　the　additional　languages　you　will　know　your　own　language

better　than　ever　you　did。　　So；　I　say；　if　the　time　given　to

education　permits；　add　Latin　and　German。　　Latin；　because　it　is　the

key　to　nearly　one…half　of　English　and　to　all　the　Romance　languages；

and　German；　because　it　is　the　key　to　almost　all　the　remainder　of

English；　and　helps　you　to　understand　a　race　from　whom　most　of　us

have　sprung；　and　who　have　a　character　and　a　literature　of　a　fateful

force　in　the　history　of　the　world；　such　as　probably　has　been

allotted　to　those　of　no　other　people；　except　the　Jews；　the　Greeks；

and　ourselves。　　Beyond　these；　the　essential　and　the　eminently

desirable　elements　of　all　education；　let　each　man　take　up　his

special　linethe　historian　devote　himself　to　his　history；　the　man

of　science　to　his　science；　the　man　of　letters　to　his　culture　of

that　kind；　and　the　artist　to　his　special　pursuit。





Bacon　has　prefaced　some　of　his　works　with　no　more　than　this：

Franciscus　Bacon　sic　cogitavit；＇85＇　let　〃sic　cogitavi〃　be　the

epilogue　to　what　I　have　ventured　to　address　to　you　to…night。







THE　METHOD　OF　SCIENTIFIC　INVESTIGATION　＇86＇





The　method　of　scientific　investigation　is　nothing　but　the

expression　of　the　necessary　mode　of　working　of　the　human　mind。　　It

is　simply　the　mode　at　which　all　phenomena　are　reasoned　about；

rendered　precise　and　exact。　　There　is　no　more　difference；　but　there

is　just　the　same　kind　of　difference；　between　the　mental　operations

of　a　man　of　science　and　those　of　an　ordinary　person；　as　there　is

between　the　operations　and　methods　of　a　baker　or　of　a　butcher

weighing　out　his　goods　in　common　scales；　and　the　operations　of　a

chemist　in　performing　a　difficult　and　complex　analysis　by　means　of

his　balance　and　finely　graduated　weights。　　It　is　not　that　the

action　of　the　scales　in　the　one　case；　and　the　balance　in　the　other；

differ　in　the　principles　of　their　construction　or　manner　of

working；　but　the　beam　of　one　is　set　on　an　infinitely　finer　axis

than　the　other；　and　of　course　turns　by　the　addition　of　a　much

smaller　weight。



You　will　understand　this　better；　perhaps；　if　I　give　you　some

familiar　example。　　You　have　all　heard　it　repeated；　I　dare　say；　that

men　of　science　work　by　means　of　induction　and　deduction；　and　that

by　the　help　of　these　operations；　they；　in　a　sort　of　sense；　wring

from　Nature　certain　other　things；　which　are　called　natural　laws；

and　causes；　and　that　out　of　these；　by　some　cunning　skill　of　their

own；　they　build　up　hypotheses　and　theories。　　And　it　is　imagined　by

many；　that　the　operations　of　the　common　mind　can　be　by　no　means

compared　with　these　processes；　and　that　they　have　to　be　acquired　by

a　sort　of　special　apprenticeship　to　the　craft。　　To　hear　all　these

large　words；　you　would　think　that　the　mind　of　a　man　of　science　must

be　constituted　differently　from　that　of　his　fellow　men；　but　if　you

will　not　be　frightened　by　terms；　you　will　discover　that　you　are

quite　wrong；　and　that　all　these　terrible　apparatus　＇87＇　are　being

used　by　yourselves　every　day　and　every　hour　of　your　lives。



There　is　a　well…known　incident　in　one　of　Moliere's　plays；＇88＇

where　the　author　makes　the　hero　express　unbounded　delight　on　being

told　that　he　had　been　talking　prose　during　the　whole　of　his　life。

In　the　same　way；　I　trust；　that　you　will　take　comfort；　and　be　delighted

with　yourselves；　on　the　discovery　that　you　have　been　acting　on　the

principles　of　inductive　and　deductive　philosophy　during　the　same

period。　　Probably　there　is　not　one　here　who　has　not　in　the　course

of　the　day　had　occasion　to　set　in　motion　a　complex　train　of

reasoning；　of　the　very　same　kind；　though　differing　of　course　in

degree；　as　that　which　a　scientific　man　goes　through　in　tracing　the

causes　of　natural　phenomena。



A　very　trivial　circumstance　will　serve　to　exemplify　this。　　Suppose

you　go　into　a　fruiterer's　shop；　wanting　an　apple；you　take　up　one；

and；　on　biting　it；　you　find　it　is　sour；　you　look　at　it；　and　see

that　it　is　hard　and　green。　　You　take　up　another　one；　and　that　too

is　hard；　green；　and　sour。　　The　shopman　offers　you　a　third；　but；

before　biting　it；　you　examine　it；　and　find　that　it　is　hard　and

green；　and　you　immediately　say　that　you　will　not　have　it；　as　it

must　be　sour；　like　those　that　you　have　already　tried。



Nothing　can　be　more　simple　than　that；　you　think；　but　if　you　will

take　the　trouble　to　analyse　and　trace　out　into　its　logical　elements

what　has　been　done　by　the　mind；　you　will　be　greatly　surprised。　　In

the　first　place　you　have　performed　the　operation　of　induction。　　You

found　that；　in　two　experiences；　hardness　and　greenness　in　apples

went　together　with　sourness。　　It　was　so　in　the　first　case；　and　it

was　confirmed　by　the　second。　　True；　it　is　a　very　small　basis；　but

still　it　is　enough　to　make　an　induction　from；　you　generalise　the

facts；　and　you　expect　to　find　sourness　in　apples　where　you　get

hardness　and　greenness。　　You　found　upon　that　a　general　law　that　all

hard　and　green　apples　are　sour；　and　that；　so　far　as　it　goes；　is　a

perfect　induction。　　Well；　having　got　your　natural　law　in　this　way；

when　you　are　offered　another　apple　which　you　find　is　hard　and

green；　you　say；　〃All　hard　and　green　apples　are　sour；　this　apple　is

hard　and　green；　therefore　this　apple　is　sour。〃　　That　train　of

reasoning　is　what　logicians　call　a　syllogism；　and　has　all　its

various　parts　and　terms；its　major　premiss；　its　minor　premiss　and

its　conclusion。　　And；　by　the　help　of　further　reasoning；　which；　if

drawn　out；　would　have　to　be　exhibited　in　two　or　three　other

syllogisms；　you　arrive　at　your　final　determination；　〃I　will　not

have　that　apple。〃　　So　that；　you　see；　you　have；　in　the　first　place；

established　a　law　by　induction；　and　upon　that　you　have　founded　a

deduction；　and　reasoned　out　the　special　particular　case。　　Well　now；

suppose；　having　got　your　conclusion　of　the　law；　that　at　some　time

afterwards；　you　are　discussing　the　qualities　of　apples　with　a

friend：　you　will　say　to　him；　〃It　is　a　very　curious　thing；but　I

find　that　all　hard　and　green　apples　are　sour！〃　　Your　friend　says　to

you；　〃But　how　do　you　know　that？〃　　You　at　once　reply；　〃Oh；　because　I

have　tried　them　over　and　over　again；　and　have　always　found　them　to

be　so。〃　　Well；　if　we　were　talking　science　instead　of　common　sense；

we　should　call　that　an　experimental　verification。　　And；　if　still

opposed；　you　go　further；　and　say；　〃I　have　heard　from　the　people　in

Somersetshire　and　Devonshire；　where　a　large　number　of　apples　are

grown；　that　they　have　observed　the　same　thing。　　It　is　also　found　to

be　the　case　in　Normandy；　and　in　North　America。　　In　short；　I　find　it

to　be　the　universal　experience　of　mankind　wherever　attention　has

been　directed　to　the　subject。〃　　Whereupon；　your　friend；　unless　he

is　a　very　unreasonable　man；　agrees　with　you；　and　is　convinced　that

you　are　quite　right　in　the　conclusion　you　have　drawn。　　He　believes；

although　perhaps　he　does　not　know　he　believes　it；　that　the　more

extensive　verifications　are；that　the　more　frequently　experiments

have　been　made；　and　results　of　the　same　kind　arrived　at；that　the

more　varied　the　conditions　under　which　the　same　results　are

attained；　the　more　certain　is　the　ultimate　conclusion；　and　he

disputes　the　question　no　further。　　He　sees　that　the　experiment　has

been　tried　under　all　sorts　of　conditions；　as　to　time；　place；　and

people；　with　the　same　result；　and　he　says　with　you；　therefore；　that