a discourse on method-第4章
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which has not been maintained by some on of the philosophers; and afterwards in the course of my travels I remarked that all those whose opinions are decidedly repugnant to ours are not in that account barbarians and savages; but on the contrary that many of these nations make an equally good; if not better; use of their reason than we do。 I took into account also the very different character which a person brought up from infancy in France or Germany exhibits; from that which; with the same mind originally; this individual would have possessed had he lived always among the Chinese or with savages; and the circumstance that in dress itself the fashion which pleased us ten years ago; and which may again; perhaps; be received into favor before ten years have gone; appears to us at this moment extravagant and ridiculous。 I was thus led to infer that the ground of our opinions is far more custom and example than any certain knowledge。 And; finally; although such be the ground of our opinions; I remarked that a plurality of suffrages is no guarantee of truth where it is at all of difficult discovery; as in such cases it is much more likely that it will be found by one than by many。 I could; however; select from the crowd no one whose opinions seemed worthy of preference; and thus I found myself constrained; as it were; to use my own reason in the conduct of my life。
But like one walking alone and in the dark; I resolved to proceed so slowly and with such circumspection; that if I did not advance far; I would at least guard against falling。 I did not even choose to dismiss summarily any of the opinions that had crept into my belief without having been introduced by reason; but first of all took sufficient time carefully to satisfy myself of the general nature of the task I was setting myself; and ascertain the true method by which to arrive at the knowledge of whatever lay within the compass of my powers。
Among the branches of philosophy; I had; at an earlier period; given some attention to logic; and among those of the mathematics to geometrical analysis and algebra; three arts or sciences which ought; as I conceived; to contribute something to my design。 But; on examination; I found that; as for logic; its syllogisms and the majority of its other precepts are of avail… rather in the communication of what we already know; or even as the art of Lully; in speaking without judgment of things of which we are ignorant; than in the investigation of the unknown; and although this science contains indeed a number of correct and very excellent precepts; there are; nevertheless; so many others; and these either injurious or superfluous; mingled with the former; that it is almost quite as difficult to effect a severance of the true from the false as it is to extract a Diana or a Minerva from a rough block of marble。 Then as to the analysis of the ancients and the algebra of the moderns; besides that they embrace only matters highly abstract; and; to appearance; of no use; the former is so exclusively restricted to the consideration of figures; that it can exercise the understanding only on condition of greatly fatiguing the imagination; and; in the latter; there is so complete a subjection to certain rules and formulas; that there results an art full of confusion and obscurity calculated to embarrass; instead of a science fitted to cultivate the mind。 By these considerations I was induced to seek some other method which would comprise the advantages of the three and be exempt from their defects。 And as a multitude of laws often only hampers justice; so that a state is best governed when; with few laws; these are rigidly administered; in like manner; instead of the great number of precepts of which logic is composed; I believed that the four following would prove perfectly sufficient for me; provided I took the firm and unwavering resolution never in a single instance to fail in observing them。
The first was never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such; that is to say; carefully to avoid precipitancy and prejudice; and to comprise nothing more in my judgement than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly as to exclude all ground of doubt。
The second; to divide each of the difficulties under examination into as many parts as possible; and as might be necessary for its adequate solution。
The third; to conduct my thoughts in such order that; by commencing with objects the simplest and easiest to know; I might ascend by little and little; and; as it were; step by step; to the knowledge of the more complex; assigning in thought a certain order even to those objects which in their own nature do not stand in a relation of antecedence and sequence。
And the last; in every case to make enumerations so complete; and reviews so general; that I might be assured that nothing was omitted。
The long chains of simple and easy reasonings by means of which geometers are accustomed to reach the conclusions of their most difficult demonstrations; had led me to imagine that all things; to the knowledge of which man is competent; are mutually connected in the same way; and that there is nothing so far removed from us as to be beyond our reach; or so hidden that we cannot discover it; provided only we abstain from accepting the false for the true; and always preserve in our thoughts the order necessary for the deduction of one truth from another。 And I had little difficulty in determining the objects with which it was necessary to commence; for I was already persuaded that it must be with the simplest and easiest to know; and; considering that of all those who have hitherto sought truth in the sciences; the mathematicians alone have been able to find any demonstrations; that is; any certain and evident reasons; I did not doubt but that such must have been the rule of their investigations。 I resolved to commence; therefore; with the examination of the simplest objects; not anticipating; however; from this any other advantage than that to be found in accustoming my mind to the love and nourishment of truth; and to a distaste for all such reasonings as were unsound。 But I had no intention on that account of attempting to master all the particular sciences commonly denominated mathematics: but observing that; however different their objects; they all agree in considering only the various relations or proportions subsisting among those objects; I thought it best for my purpose to consider these proportions in the most general form possible; without referring them to any objects in particular; except such as would most facilitate the knowledge of them; and without by any means restricting them to these; that afterwards I might thus be the better able to apply them to every other class of objects to which they are legitimately applicable。 Perceiving further; that in order to understand these relations I should sometimes have to consider them one by one and sometimes only to bear them in mind; or embrace them in the aggregate; I thought that; in order the better to consider them individually; I should view them as subsisting between straight lines; than which I could find no objects more simple; or capable of being more distinctly represented to my imagination and senses; and on the other hand; that in order to retain them in the memory or embrace an aggregate of many; I should express them by certain characters the briefest possible。 In this way I believed that I could borrow all that was best both in geometrical analysis and in algebra; and correct all the defects of the one by help of the other。
And; in point of fact; the accurate observance of these few precepts gave me; I take the liberty of saying; such ease in unraveling all the questions embraced in these two sciences; that in the two or three months I devoted to their examination; not only did I reach solutions of questions I had formerly deemed exceedingly difficult but even as regards questions of the solution of which I continued ignorant; I was enabled; as it appeared to me; to determine the means whereby; and the extent to which a solution was possible; results attributable to the circumstance that I commenced with the simplest and most