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Creatures That Once Were Men



by Maxim Gorky






Translated from the Russian by J。 M。 SHIRAZI and Others

Introduction by G。 K。 CHESTERTON






CONTENTS

     

INTRODUCTION 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。  V

Creatures That Once were Men 。 。 。 。 13

Twenty…Six Men and a Girl  。 。 。 。 。104

Chelkash 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。125

My Fellow…Traveller  。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。178

On a Raft  。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。229













INTRODUCTION



By G。 K。 CHESTERTON





It is certainly a curious fact that so many of the voices of 

what is called our modern religion have come from countries 

which are not only simple; but may even be called barbaric。 

A nation like Norway has a great realistic drama without 

having ever had either a great classical drama or a great 

romantic drama。  A nation like Russia makes us feel its modern 

fiction when we have never felt its ancient fiction。  It has 

produced its Gissing without producing its Scott。  Everything 

that is most sad and scientific; everything that is most grim

and analytical; everything that can truly be called most

modern; everything that can without unreasonableness be 

called most morbid; comes from these fresh and untried and 

unexhausted nationalities。  Out of these infant peoples come 

the oldest voices of the earth。



This contradiction; like many other contradictions; is one 

which ought first of all to be registered as a mere fact; 

long before we attempt to explain why things contradict 

themselves; we ought; if we are honest men and good critics; 

to register the preliminary truth that things do contradict 

themselves。  In this case; as I say; there are many possible 

and suggestive explanations。  It may be; to take an example; 

that our modern Europe is so exhausted that even the vigorous 

expression of that exhaustion is difficult for every one 

except the most robust。





vi  INTRODUCTION





It may be that all the nations are tired; and it may be that 

only the boldest and breeziest are not too tired to say that 

they are tired。  It may be that a man like Ibsen in Norway or 

a man like Gorky in Russia are the only people left who have 

so much faith that they can really believe in scepticism。  It 

may be that they are the only people left who have so much 

animal spirits that they can really feast high and drink 

deep at the ancient banquet of pessimism。  This is one of the 

possible hypotheses or explanations in the matter:  that all 

Europe feels these things and that only have strength to

believe them also。  Many other explanations might; however; 

also be offered。  It might be suggested that half…barbaric 

countries; like Russia or Norway; which have always lain; 

to say the least of it; on the extreme edge of the circle of 

our European civilization; have a certain primal melancholy 

which belongs to them through all the ages。  It is highly 

probable that this sadness; which to us is modern; is to 

them eternal。  It is highly probable that what we have 

solemnly and suddenly discovered in scientific text…books 

and philosophical magazines they absorbed and experienced 

thousands of years ago; when they offered human sacrifice 

in black and cruel forests and cried to their gods in the 

dark。  Their agnosticism is perhaps merely paganism; their

paganism; as in old times; is merely devil…worship。 Certainly; 

Schopenhauer could hardly have written his hideous essay on 

women except in a country which had once been full of slavery 

and the service of fiends。  It may be that these moderns are 

tricking us altogether; and are hiding in their current 

scientific jargon things that they knew before science or 

civilization were。





vii  INTRODUCTION





They say that they are determinists; but the truth is; 

probably; that they are still worshipping the Norns。  They

say that they describe scenes which are sickening and

dehumanizing in the name of art or in the name of truth; but 

it may be that they do it in the name of some deity 

indescribable; whom they propitiated with blood and terror 

before the beginning of history。



This hypothesis; like the hypothesis mentioned before it; 

is highly disputable; and is at best a suggestion。 But there 

is one broad truth in the matter which may in any case be 

considered as established。  A country like Russia has far 

more inherent capacity for producing revolution in 

revolutionists than any country of the type of England or 

America。  Communities highly civilized and largely urban tend 

to a thing which is now called evolution; the most cautious 

and the most conservative of all social influences。  The 

loyal Russian obeys the Czar because he remembers the Czar 

and the Czar's importance。  The disloyal Russian frets 

against the Czar because he also remembers the Czar; and 

makes a note of the necessity of knifing him。  But the loyal 

Englishman obeys the upper classes because he has forgotten

that they are there。  Their operation has become to him like 

daylight; or gravitation; or any of the forces of nature。 

And there are no disloyal Englishmen; there are no English 

revolutionists; because the oligarchic management of England 

is so complete as to be invisible。  The thing which can once 

get itself forgotten can make itself omnipotent。





viii  INTRODUCTION





Gorky is preeminently Russian; in that he is a revolutionist; 

not because most Russians are revolutionists (for I imagine 

that they are not); but because most Russiansindeed; nearly 

all Russianare in that attitude of mind which makes 

revolution possible; and which makes religion possible; an 

attitude of primary and dogmatic assertion。  To be a 

revolutionist it is first necessary to be a revelationist。 

It is necessary to believe in the sufficiency of some theory 

of the universe or the State。  But in countries that have 

come under the influence of what is called the evolutionary 

idea; there has been no dramatic righting of wrongs; and 

(unless the evolutionary idea loses its hold) there never 

will be。  These countries have no revolution; they have to 

put up with an inferior and largely fictitious thing which

they call progress。



The interest of the Gorky tale; like the interest of so many 

other Russian masterpieces; consists in this sharp contact 

between a simplicity; which we in the West feel to be very 

old; and a rebelliousness which we in the West feel to he 

very new。  We cannot in our graduated and polite civilization 

quite make head or tail of the Russian anarch; we can only 

feel in a vague way that his tale is the tale of the Missing 

Link; and that his head is the head of the superman。  We hear 

his lonely cry of anger。  But we cannot be quite certain 

whether his protest is the protest of the first anarchist 

against government; or whether it is the protest of the last 

savage against civilization。  The cruelty of ages and of

political cynicism or necessity has done much to burden the 

race of which Gorky writes; but time has left them one thing 

which it has not left to the people in Poplar or West Ham。





ix  INTRODUCTION





It has left them; apparently; the clear and childlike power 

of seeing the cruelty which encompasses them。  Gorky is a 

tramp; a man of the people; and also a critic; and a bitter 

one。  In the West poor men; when they become articulate in 

literature; are always sentimentalists and nearly always 

optimists。



It is no exaggeration to say that these people of whom Gorky 

writes in such a story as 〃Creatures that once were Men〃 

are to the Western mind children。  They have; indeed; been 

tortured and broken by experience and sin。 But this has only 

sufficed to make them sad children or naughty children or 

bewildered children。  They have absolutely no trace of that 

quality upon which secure government rests so largely in 

Western Europe; the qualit

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